Introduction to C++

slide 1
Reading Assignment
 Mitchell, Chapter 12

slide 2
History
 C++ is an object-oriented extension of C
 Designed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs
• His original interest at Bell Labs was research on
simulation
• Early extensions to C are based primarily on Simula
• Called “C with classes” in early 1980s
• Features were added incrementally
– Classes, templates, exceptions, multiple inheritance, type
tests...

slide 3
Design Goals
 Provide object-oriented features in C-based
language, without compromising efficiency
• Backwards compatibility with C
• Better static type checking
• Data abstraction
• Objects and classes
• Prefer efficiency of compiled code where possible
 Important principle
• If you do not use a feature, your compiled code
should be as efficient as if the language did not
include the feature (compare to Smalltalk)
slide 4
How Successful?
 Many users, tremendous popular success
 Given the design goals and constraints, very
well-designed language
 Very complicated design, however
• Many features with complex interactions
• Difficult to predict from basic principles
• Most serious users chose subset of language
– Full language is complex and unpredictable
• Many implementation-dependent properties

slide 5
Significant Constraints
 C has specific machine model
• Access to underlying architecture (BCPL legacy)
 No garbage collection
• Consistent with the goal of efficiency
• Need to manage object memory explicitly
 Local variables stored in activation records
• Objects treated as generalization of structs
– Objects may be allocated on stack and treated as l-values
– Stack/heap difference is visible to programmer

slide 6
Non-Object-Oriented Additions
 Function templates (generic programming)
 Pass-by-reference
 User-defined overloading
 Boolean type

slide 7
C++ Object System
 Classes
 Objects
• With dynamic lookup of virtual functions
 Inheritance
• Single and multiple inheritance
• Public and private base classes
 Subtyping
• Tied to inheritance mechanism
 Encapsulation

slide 8
Good Decisions
 Public, private, protected levels of visibility
• Public: visible everywhere
• Protected: within class and subclass declarations
• Private: visible only in class where declared
 Friend functions and classes
• Careful attention to visibility and data abstraction
 Allow inheritance without subtyping
• Private and protected base classes
• Useful to separate subtyping and inheritance
(why?)
slide 9
Problem Areas
 Casts
• Sometimes no-op, sometimes not (multiple inheritance)
 Lack of garbage collection
 Objects allocated on stack
• Better efficiency, interaction with exceptions
• BUT assignment works badly, possible dangling ptrs
 Overloading
• Too many code selection mechanisms?
 Multiple inheritance
• Efforts at efficiency lead to complicated behavior
slide 10
Sample Class: Points
class Pt {
public:
Pt(int xv); Overloaded constructor
Pt(Pt* pv);
int getX(); Public read access to private data
virtual void move(int dx); Virtual function
protected:
void setX(int xv); Protected write access
private:
int x; Private member data
};
slide 11
Virtual Functions
 Virtual member functions
• Accessed by indirection through pointer in object
• May be redefined in derived subclasses
• The exact function to call determined dynamically
 Non-virtual functions are ordinary functions
• Cannot redefine in subclasses (but can overload)
 Member functions are virtual if explicitly
declared or inherited as virtual, else non-virtual
 Pay overhead only if you use virtual functions

slide 12
Sample Derived Class: Color Point
class ColorPt: public Pt { Public base class gives supertype
public:
ColorPt(int xv,int cv);
ColorPt(Pt* pv,int cv); Overloaded constructor
ColorPt(ColorPt* cp);
int getColor(); Non-virtual function
virtual void move(int dx);
Virtual functions
virtual void darken(int tint);
protected:
void setColor(int cv); Protected write access
private:
int color; }; Private member data
slide 13
Run-Time Representation
Point object Point vtable Code for move
vptr
x 3

ColorPoint object ColorPoint vtable Code for move

vptr
x 5
c blue Code for darken
Extra level of indirection
when function is called

Data at same offset Function pointers at same offset

slide 14
 Compare to Smalltalk
Point object Point class Template
Method dictionary
x
y newX:Y:
2 ...
...
3
move

ColorPoint class Template

ColorPoint object
Method dictionary
x
4 y newX:Y:C:
5 color color
move
red

slide 15
Why Is C++ Lookup Simpler?
 Smalltalk has no static type system
• Code p message:params could refer to any object
• Need to find method using pointer from object
• Different classes will put methods at different places
in the method dictionary
 C++ type gives compiler some superclass (how?)
• Offset of data, function pointers is the same in
subclass and superclass, thus known at compile-time
• Code p->move(x) compiles to equivalent of
(*(p->vptr[0]))(p,x) if move is first function in vtable

data passed to member function slide 16

Looking Up Methods (1)
Point object Point vtable Code for move
vptr
x 3

ColorPoint object ColorPoint vtable Code for move

vptr
x 5
c blue Code for darken

Point p = new Pt(3);

p->move(2); // Compiles to equivalent of (*(p->vptr[0]))(p,2)
slide 17
Looking Up Methods (2)
Point object Point vtable Code for move
vptr
x 3

ColorPoint object ColorPoint vtable Code for move

vptr darken()
x 5
c blue Code for darken

What is
this for?
Point cp = new ColorPt(5,blue);
cp->move(2); // Compiles to equivalent of (*(cp->vptr[0]))(cp,2)
slide 18
Calls to Virtual Functions
 One member function may call another
class A {
public:
virtual int f (int x);
virtual int g(int y);
};
int A::f(int x) { … g(i) …;}
int A::g(int y) { … f(j) …;}
 How does body of f call the right g?
• If g is redefined in derived class B, then inherited f
must call B::g
slide 19
“This” Pointer
 Code is compiled so that member function takes
object itself as first argument
Code int A::f(int x) { … g(i) …;}
compiled as int A::f(A *this, int x) { … this->g(i) …;}
 “this” pointer may be used in member function
• Can be used to return pointer to object itself, pass
pointer to object itself to another function, etc.
 Analogous to “self” in Smalltalk

slide 20
Non-Virtual Functions
 How is code for non-virtual function found?
 Same way as ordinary functions:
• Compiler generates function code and assigns address
• Address of code is placed in symbol table
• At call site, address is taken from symbol table and
placed in compiled code
• But some special scoping rules for classes
 Overloading
• Remember: overloading is resolved at compile time
• Different from run-time lookup of virtual function
slide 21
Scope Rules in C++
 Scope qualifiers: binary :: operator, ->, and .
• class::member, ptr->member, object.member
 A name outside a function or class, not prefixed
by unary :: and not qualified refers to global
object, function, enumerator or type
 A name after X::, ptr-> or obj. refers to a
member of class X or a base class of X
• Assume ptr is pointer to class X and obj is an object
of class X

slide 22
Virtual vs. Overloaded Functions
class parent { public:
void printclass() {printf("p ");};
virtual void printvirtual() {printf("p ");}; };
class child : public parent { public:
void printclass() {printf("c ");};
virtual void printvirtual() {printf("c ");}; };
main() {
parent p; child c; parent *q;
p.printclass(); p.printvirtual(); c.printclass(); c.printvirtual();
q = &p; q->printclass(); q->printvirtual();
q = &c; q->printclass(); q->printvirtual();
}
Output: p p c c p p p c
slide 23
Subtyping
 Subtyping in principle
• A <: B if every A object can be used without type error
whenever a B object is required
• Example:
Point: int getX();
void move(int); Public members
ColorPoint: int getX();
int getColor();
void move(int);
Public members
void darken(int tint);
 C++: A <: B if class A has public base class B
• This is weaker than necessary (why?)

slide 24
No Subtyping Without Inheritance
class Point { class ColorPoint {
public: public:
int getX();
int getX();
void move(int);
void move(int); int getColor();
protected: ... void darken(int);
private: ... protected: ...
private: ...
}; };

 C++ does not treat ColorPoint <: Point (as written)

• Unlike Smalltalk!
• Need public inheritance ColorPoint : public Point (why?)
slide 25
Why This Design Choice?
 Client code depends only on public interface
• In principle, if ColorPoint interface contains Point
interface, then any client could use ColorPoint in
place of Point (like Smalltalk)
• But offset in virtual function table may differ, thus
lose implementation efficiency (like Smalltalk)
 Without link to inheritance, subtyping leads to
loss of implementation efficiency
 Also encapsulation issue
• Subtyping based on inheritance is preserved under
modifications to base class
slide 26
Function Subtyping
 Subtyping principle
• A <: B if an A expression can be safely used in any
context where a B expression is required
 Subtyping for function results
• If A <: B, then C  A <: C  B
• Covariant: A <: B implies F(A) <: F(B)
 Subtyping for function arguments
• If A <: B, then B  C <: A  C
• Contravariant: A <: B implies F(B) <: F(A)

slide 27
Examples
 If circle <: shape, then

circle  shape

circle  circle shape  shape

shape  circle

C++ compilers recognize limited forms of function subtyping

slide 28
Subtyping with Functions
class Point { class ColorPoint: public Point {
public: Inherited, but repeated
public:
int getX();
here for clarity
int getX(); int getColor();
virtual Point *move(int); ColorPoint * move(int);
void darken(int);
protected: ...
protected: ...
private: ... private: ...
}; };

 In principle: can have ColorPoint <: Point

 In practice: some compilers allow, others not
• This is covariant case; contravariance is another story
slide 29
Abstract Classes
 Abstract class: a class without complete
implementation
 Declared by =0 (what a great syntax! )
 Useful because it can have derived classes
• Since subtyping follows inheritance in C++, use
abstract classes to build subtype hierarchies.
 Establishes layout of virtual function table
(vtable)

slide 30
Multiple Inheritance

Shape ReferenceCounted

Rectangle

RefCounted
Rectangle

Inherit independent functionality from independent classes

slide 31
Problem: Name Clashes
class A {
public:
void virtual f() { … }
};
same name
class B {
in two base
public:
classes
void virtual f() { … }
};
class C : public A, public B { … };
…
C* p;
p->f(); // error

slide 32
Solving Name Clashes
 Three general approaches
• No solution is always best
 Implicit resolution
• Language resolves name conflicts with arbitrary rule
 Explicit resolution  used by C++
• Programmer must explicitly resolve name conflicts
 Disallow name clashes
• Programs are not allowed to contain name clashes

slide 33
Explicit Resolution of Name Clashes
 Rewrite class C to call A::f explicitly
class C : public A, public B {
public:
void virtual f( ) {
A::f( ); // Call A::f(), not B::f();
}
 Eliminates ambiguity
 Preserves dependence on A
• Changes to A::f will change C::f

slide 34
vtable for Multiple Inheritance
class A { class C: public A, public B {
public: public:
int x; int z;
virtual void f(); virtual void f();
}; };
class B {
public: C *pc = new C;
int y; B *pb = pc;
virtual void g(); A *pa = pc;
virtual void f(); Three pointers to same object,
}; but different static types.
slide 35
 Object Layout A B

C object C-as-A vtbl

pa, pc vptr & C::f 0
 A object
A data C-as-B vtbl
pb vptr & B::g 0
B object
B data & C::f 
C data

 Offset  in vtbl is used in call to pb->f, since C::f may

refer to A data that is above the pointer pb
 Call to pc->g can proceed through C-as-B vtbl
slide 36
Multiple Inheritance “Diamond”

Window (D)

Text Window (A) Graphics Window (B)

Text, Graphics
Window (C)

 Is interface or implementation inherited twice?

 What if definitions conflict?
slide 37
Diamond Inheritance in C++ D

A B

 Standard base classes

C

• D members appear twice in C

 Virtual base classes
class A : public virtual D { … } A part
• Avoid duplication of base class
B part
members
• Require additional pointers so that C part
D part of A, B parts of object can
be shared D part
 C++ multiple inheritance is complicated in part
because of desire to maintain efficient lookup slide 38
C++ Summary
 Objects
• Created by classes
• Contain member data and pointer to class
 Classes: virtual function table
 Inheritance
• Public and private base classes, multiple inheritance
 Subtyping: occurs with public base classes only
 Encapsulation
• Member can be declared public, private, protected
• Object initialization partly enforced
slide 39