Introduction

• Host and routers are as nodes.

• Communication channels that
connect adjacent nodes along
global ISP
communication path, its called
links.
– Wired links
– Wireless links
– LANs
• In this layer, Packet is form of
frame from encapsulate
datagram.
• This layer has responsibility of
transferring datagram from one
node to physically adjacent node
over a link.
 Link Layer Services
• Framing
– Encapsulate datagram into frame.
– Adding header and trailer.
• Link Access
– “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify source and
destination. It is different from IP address.
• Reliable delivery
– If this layer protocol provides reliable delivery service, it guarantees
to move each network-layer datagram across the link without error.
– A link-layer reliable delivery service can be achieved with
acknowledgments and retransmissions.
• Flow Control
– Pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes.
 Link Layer Services – Cont…
• Error Detection & Correction
– Errors caused by signal attenuation and noise.
– Receiver detects presence of errors.
– Sender send signal for retransmission or drops frame.
– Receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission.
 Error Detection & Correction Technique
• Techniques for error detection
– Parity Check
– Checksum Method
– Cyclic Redundancy Check
 Parity Check
• One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to
make number of 1s either even in case of even
parity, or odd in case of odd parity.
• For example, if even parity is used and number of
1s is even then one bit with value 0 is added. This
way number of 1s remains even.
• If the number of 1s is odd, to make it even a bit
with value 1 is added.
 Parity Check – Cont…
• Receiver counts the number of 1s in a frame. If
the count of 1s is even and even parity is used,
the frame is considered to be not-corrupted and
is accepted.
• If the count of 1s is odd and odd parity is used,
the frame is still not corrupted.
• If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can
detect it by counting the number of 1s.
• But when more than one bits are erroneous, then
it is very hard for the receiver to detect the error.
 Checksum
• Data is divided into k segments each of m bits.
• Sender Side: Segments are added using 1’s
complement arithmetic to get the sum.
• Sum is complemented to get the checksum.
• Checksum segment is sent along with the data
segments.
• Receiver Side: All received segments are added
using 1’s complement arithmetic to get
complemented sum.
• If the result is zero, the received data is accepted;
otherwise discarded.
 Checksum - Example
• Add two 16-bit integers word
Sender Receiver
1 1110011001100110 1 1110011001100110
1 1101010101010101 1 1101010101010101
wraparound1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1011101110111011
+ +
sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1011101110111100
sum
checksum 0100010001000011 1 0100010001000011
1111111111111111
If one of the bits is a 0, then we can
say that error introduced into packet

Note: when adding numbers, a carryout from the most significant

bit needs to be added to the result
 Cyclic Redundancy Check
• CRC is the most powerful and easy to implement technique.
• CRC is based on binary division.
• In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, are appended to the end of
data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a
second, predetermined binary number.
• At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same
number.
• If at this step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be
correct and is therefore accepted.
• A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit
and therefore must be rejected.
• The binary number, which is (r+1) bit in length, can also be considered
as the coefficients of a polynomial, called Generator Polynomial.
CRC –
Example:1
CRC – Example:2
 Multiple Access Links
• There are two types of network links:
• A point-to-point link consists of a single sender at one
end of the link and a single receiver at the other end
of the link.
• A broadcast link, can have multiple sending and
receiving nodes all connected to the same, single,
shared broadcast channel.
• The term broadcast is used here because when any
one node transmits a frame, the channel broadcasts
the frame and each of the other nodes receives a
copy.
 Multiple Access Protocols
Categories of Multiple Access Protocol:
1. Channel Partitioning Protocols
– Divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
– Allocate piece to node for exclusive use
– Examples of channel partitioning protocols
• TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
• FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
• CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
 Multiple Access Protocols – Cont…
2. Random Access Protocols
– Channel is not divided and allow collisions.
– “Recover” from collisions
– Examples of random access MAC (Medium Access
Control) protocols
• Pure ALOHA
• Slotted ALOHA
• CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
 Multiple Access Protocols – Cont…
3. Taking-turns protocols
– Nodes take turns but nodes with more to send can
take longer turns.
– Examples of taking-turns protocols
• Polling
• Token passing
TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
• Suppose the channel supports N nodes and that the transmission
rate of the channel is R bps.
• TDM divides time into time frames and further divides each time
frame into N time slots.
• Each time slot is then6-slot
assigned to one of the6-slot
N nodes.
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

• Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packet, slots 2,5,6 idle

• Major drawbacks: First, A node is limited to an average rate of R/N
bps even when it is the only node with packets to send.
• Second drawback is that a node must always wait for its turn in the
transmission sequence again, even when it is the only node with a
frame to send.
FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
• Channel spectrum divided into frequency bands.
• Each station assigned fixed frequency band.
• Unused transmission time in frequency bands go
idle.
• Example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packet, time

frequency bands
frequency bands 2,5,6 idle

FDM cable
CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
• CDMA assigns a different code to each node, While TDM and
FDM assign time slots and frequencies respectively.
• Each node then uses its unique code to encode the data bits it
sends.
• If the codes are chosen carefully, CDMA networks have the
wonderful property that different nodes can transmit
simultaneously.
• Their respective receivers correctly receive a sender’s encoded
data bits in spite of interfering transmissions by other nodes.
• Example: Used in military and widespread civilian use,
particularly in cellular telephony.
• Because CDMA’s use is so tightly tied to wireless channels.
 Pure Aloha Protocol
• It allows users to transmit whenever they have data to be sent.
• Senders wait to see if a collision occurred (after whole message has
been sent).
• If collision occurs, each station involved waits a random amount of time
then tries again.
• Systems in which multiple users share a common channel in a way that
can lead to conflicts are widely known as contention systems.
• Whenever two frames try to occupy the channel at the same time, there
will be a collision and both will be garbled.
• If the first bit of a new frame overlaps with just the last bit of a frame
almost finished, both frames will be totally destroyed and both will have
to be retransmitted later.
 Pure ALOHA – Cont…
• Frames are transmitted at completely arbitrary times.
• The throughput of the Pure ALOHA is maximized when the frames are of
uniform length.
• The formula to calculate the throughput of the Pure ALOHA is

S-=G*e-2G
• The throughput is maximum when G=1/2 which is 18% of the total
transmitted data frames.
 Slotted Aloha
• It was invented to improve the efficiency of pure
ALOHA as chances of collision in pure ALOHA are
very high.
• The time of the shared channel is divided into
discrete intervals called slots.
• The stations can send a frame only at the
beginning of the slot and only one frame is sent in
each slot.
 Slotted Aloha – Cont…

• If any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the
beginning of the slot then the station has to wait until the
beginning of the next time slot.
• The formula to calculate the throughput of the Slotted ALOHA is
S=G*e-G
• The throughput is maximum when G=1 which is 37% of the total
transmitted data frames.
• 37% of the time slot is empty, 37% successes and 26% collision.
 CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
• If two stations sense the channel to be idle and
begin transmitting simultaneously, they will both
detect the collision almost immediately.
• Rather than finish transmitting, they should abruptly
stop transmitting as soon as the collision is detected.
• Quickly terminating damaged frames saves time and
bandwidth.
• This protocol, known as CSMA/CD (CSMA with
Collision Detection) is widely used on LANs in the
MAC sub layer.
 CSMA/CD – Cont…

• At the point marked t0, a station has finished transmitting its

frame. Any other station having a frame to send may now attempt
to do so.
• After a station detects a collision, it aborts transmission, waits a
random period of time, and then tries again, assuming that no
other station has started transmitting in the meantime.
• Therefore, CSMA/CD will consist of alternating contention and
transmission periods, with idle periods occurring when all stations
are quiet.
 Polling
• It requires one of the nodes to be designated as a master node.
• The master node polls each of the nodes in a round-robin
fashion.
• The master node first sends a message to node 1, saying that it
(node 1) can transmit up to some maximum number of frames.
• After node 1 transmits some frames, the master node tells
node 2 it (node 2) can transmit up to the maximum number of
frames.
• The master node can determine when a node has finished
sending its frames by observing the lack of a signal on the
channel.
 Polling – Cont…
• The procedure continues in this manner, with the
master node polling each of the nodes in a cyclic
manner.

• The polling protocol eliminates the collisions and

empty slots that plague random access protocols.
 Token Passing
• There is no master node.
• A small, special-purpose frame known as a
token is exchanged among the nodes in some
fixed order.
• For example, node 1 might always send the
token to node 2, node 2 might always send the
token to node 3, and node N might always send
the token to node 1.
• When a node receives a token, it holds onto the
token only if it has some frames to transmit;
otherwise, it immediately forwards the token to
the next node.
• If failure of one node can crash the entire
channel. Or if a node accidentally neglects to
release the token.
 Ethernet
• Ethernet is one of the widely used local area network (LAN)
technology.
1. Switched Ethernet
– It gives dedicated 10 Mbps bandwidth on each of its ports.
– On each of the ports one can connect either a thick/thin segment
or a computer.
2. Fast Ethernet
– The 802.u or the fast Ethernet was approved by the IEEE 802
Committee.
– It uses the same frame format, same CSMA/CD protocol and same
interface as the 802.3, but uses a data transfer rate of 100 Mbps
instead of 10 Mbps.
– Fast Ethernet is based entirely on 10-Base-T.
 Ethernet – Cont…
3. Gigabit Ethernet
– Gigabit Ethernet is carried primarily on optical fiber
(with very short distances possible on copper media).
– Existing Ethernet LANs with 10 and 100 Mbps cards
can feed into a Gigabit Ethernet backbone.
– An alternative technology that competes with Gigabit
Ethernet is ATM.
– A newer standard, 10-Gigabit Ethernet is also
becoming available.
• E.g. 100-Base-T
 Bit Stuffing
• In a bit-oriented protocol, the data to send is a series of
bits.
• In order to distinguish frames, most protocols use a bit
pattern of 8-bit length (01111110) as flag at the
beginning and end of each frame.
• Here also cause the problem of appearance of flag in
the data part to deal with this an extra bit added.
• This method is called bit stuffing.
• If a 0 and five successive 1 bits are encountered, an
extra 0 is added.
• The receiver node removes the extra-added zero.
Bit Stuffing - Example
 Byte Stuffing
• Problem of resynchronization by having each frame
start and end with special bytes.
• A flag byte is used to separate the frame as both the
starting and ending delimiter.
• This technique is called byte stuffing or character
stuffing.
• In this way, if the receiver ever loses synchronization,
it can just search for the flag byte to find the end of
the current frame.
• Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one
frame and start of the next one.
 Byte Stuffing - Example
• To solve this problem, is to have the sender's data link layer insert a
special escape byte (ESC) just before each "accidental" flag byte in the
data.
• The data link layer on the receiving end removes the escape byte before
the data are given to the network layer.
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• It is a protocol for mapping an Internet Protocol address
(IP address) to a physical machine address that is
recognized in the local network.
• For example, in IP v4 - an address is 32 bits long.
• The physical machine address is also known as a Media
Access Control or MAC address.
• A table, usually called the ARP cache, is used to maintain a
correlation between each MAC address and its
corresponding IP address.
• ARP provides the protocol rules for making this correlation
and providing address conversion in both directions.
How ARP Works?
 How ARP Works?
• When an incoming packet arrives at a gateway, the gateway asks
the ARP program to find a physical host or MAC address that
matches the IP address.
• The ARP program looks in the ARP cache and, if it finds the
address, provides it so that the packet can be converted to the
right packet length and format and sent to the machine.
• If no entry is found for the IP address, ARP broadcasts a request
packet in a special format to all the machines on the LAN to see if
one machine knows that it has that IP address associated with it.
• A machine that recognizes the IP address as its own returns a
reply.
• ARP updates the ARP cache for future reference and then sends
the packet to the MAC address that replied.
Thank You