The body of all organisms is made up of very

small units called cell.

A cell is capable of independent existence
and can carry out all the functions which are
necessary for a living being. Unicellular
.
organisms are capable of independent
existence which shows a cell’s capability to
exist independently like in amoeba. Due to
this, a cell is called the fundamental,
structural and functional unit of living
organisms and basic unit of life.
Discovery of Cell and Cell Theory
Cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in
1665. He observed that just like honeycomb,
organisms are also composed of small
compartments. He named these compartments
as Cells.
.
Cell theory state that:
•All living organisms are composed of cells.
•Cell is the fundamental unit of life.
•All new cells come from pre-existing cells.
Shape and Size of Cells
Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval,
spherical, rectangular, spindle shaped, or totally
irregular like the nerve cell. The Size of cell also
varies in different animals and plants. Most of the
cells are microscopic in size
. like red blood cells
(RBC) while some cells are fairly large like nerve
cells. Average size of cells varies from 0.5 to 20 μ. 
Types of Cells:
The cells can be categorized in two types :
1.ProkaryoticCell
2. Eukaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic cell
In some organisms, DNA and RNA (genetic substances) are bound by a
membrane; this is termed as true nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are cells
in which true nucleus is absent. They are primitive and incomplete
cells. Prokaryotes are always unicellular organisms.  Bacteria, blue
green algae are the examples of prokaryotes.

.
Eukaryotic Cell
Eukaryotic cells are cells in which true nucleus is present. They are
advanced and complete cells. Eukaryotes include all living organisms
(both unicellular and multi-cellular organisms) except bacteria and blue
green algae.

.
Cell Structures
Cell is composed of some basic structures:  
Plasma Membrane: Plasma membrane is the covering of the cell that
separates the contents of the cell from its external environment. It is
a living part of the cell. It is very thin, delicate, elastic and
selectively permeable membrane. Plasma membrane is composed of
lipid and protein.
Function:
.
As it is selectively permeable membrane, it allows the flow of
limited substances in and out of the cell. 
Cell wall: Cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable
covering made up of cellulose. Cell wall is available in eukaryotic
plant cells and in prokaryotic cells.
Functions:
•It determines the shape of the cell.
•It protects the plasma membrane.
•It prevents desiccation or dryness in cells.
•It helps in the transport of various substances in and out of the cell. 
Protoplasm: It is a jelly-like, viscous, colourless
semi-fluid substance in various cell organelles
present in colloidal form.
Protoplasm consists two
parts: cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
Cytoplasm is that part
. of protoplasm which
surrounds the nucleus.
Nucleoplasm is that part of protoplasm which is
located inside the nucleus.
Functions:
•Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like
amino acids, proteins, sugars etc.
•It is the site of some metabolic reactions.
Golgi Body: Golgi body are also called Golgi
Complex/ Golgi Apparatus. It is first discovered by
Camillo Golgi. It consists of membrane bound
structures arranged parallel to each other.
Functions:
•Golgi bodies store, modify, package and dispatch the
substances. .
•They help in the formation of lysosomes. 
Ribosomes : These are extremely small, dense and
round bodies interspersed in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes
are made up of ribonucleic acid(RNA) and proteins. In
prokaryotic cell, ribosomes are of 70 types. In
eukaryotic cells, ribosomes are of 80 types. Ribosome
is responsible for protein synthesis. 
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are small rod-shaped organelles. It is
a double membrane structure. Outer membrane is smooth whereas
inner membrane is projected into numerous finger-like structures;
called cristae. Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
Functions:
•They provide energy for the vital activities of living cells.
•They store energy releases during reactions, in the form of ATP
.
(Energy currency of the cell). Therefore it is also called power
house of the cell. 
Centrosome and Centrioles:
Centrosome is found only in eukaryotic animal cells. It is not
bounded by any membrane but consists of centrioles. Centrioles
are hollow cylindrical structures arranged at right angle to each
other and made up of microtubules.
Centrioles help in cell division and also help in the formation of
cilia and flagella. 
Plastids : Plastids are present in most of the plant cells and absent in animals
cells. They are usually spherical or discoidal in shaped. These are double
membrane bound organelles. Plastids also have its own DNA and ribosomes.
Plastids are of three types:
1.Chloroplasts: Green coloured plastids containing chlorophyll. Chloroplasts
manufacture food by the process of photosynthesis.
2.Chromoplasts: Colourful plastids. They provide colour to flowers and fruits.
3.Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids. They help in the storage of various substances
like starch, proteins and fats. 
.
Lysosomes : Lysosomes are formed by golgi bodies. They are small, spherical,
sac like structures which contain several digestive enzymes enclosed in a
membrane. They are found in eukaryotic cells mostly in animals.
Functions:
•Lisosomes help in digestion of foreign substances and worn-out cell organelles.
•They provide protection against bacteria and virus.
•They help to keep the cell clean.
•During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for eg; when the gets damaged,
lysosomes may burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore,
lysosomes are also known as suicide bags of a cell. 
Vacuoles : Vacuoles are liquid / solid filled in a membrane. In plant
cells, vacuoles are large and permanent. In animal cells, vacuoles are
small in size and temporary. In mature plant cell, it occupies 90% space of
cell volume. Due to its size, other organelles including nucleus shift
towards plasma membrane. 
Endoplasmic Reticulum : It is a network of tube like structures from
nuclear membrane to plasma membrane. It is absent in prokaryotic cells
and matured RBCs of mammals.
.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum:
1.Rough ER : In rough endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes are present on
the surface.
2.Smooth ER : Ribosomes are absent. 
Functions :
•It gives internal support to cell.
•It helps in transport of various substances from nuclear membrane to
plasma membrane or vice versa.
•It helps in the formation of plasma membrane and golgi bodies.
•Rough ER helps in synthesis and transportation of proteins.
•Smooth ER helps in synthesis and transport of lipids. 
Nucleus : Nucleus is dense and spherical
organelle. Nucleus is bounded by two membranes,
both forming nuclear envelope. Nuclear envelope
contains many pores known as nuclear pores. The
fluid which is inside the nucleus is called
nucleoplasm. Nucleus contains chromosomes and
.
chromosomes contain genes which are the carriers
of genetic information.
Functions:
•Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of cell.
•Nucleus is the storehouse of genes. Without
nucleus, cell can neither survive nor shows
specialized activities. 
 Transport of Substances through Plasma Membrane
Substance can pass through plasma membrane by two
processes: Diffusion and Osmosis.
Diffusion: It is the process of movement of substances from its high concentration
to low concentration.
During the respiration, carbon dioxide is given out a waste product and accumulates
in higher concentration inside the cell compared to outside. Due to the difference in
concentration inside and outside the cell, CO 2 start moving out of the cell.
Osmosis : It is the process of movement of water from its high concentration to its
.
low concentration through semi-permeable membrane.
•If the medium surrounding the cell has higher water concentration than in cell, cell
will gain water by osmosis. Such dilute solution is called Hypotonic solution. Though
water molecules pass across plasma membrane in both sides but more water will
enter inside the cell. The cell is therefore, swell up and increase in volume. This
process is called Endosmosis.
•If the medium surrounding the cell is exactly the same water concentration as
inside the cell, there will no net movement of water across membrane resulting in
no change in size of cell. Such solution is called Isotonic solution.
•If the medium surrounding the cell has lower water concentration than inside the
cell, the cell will lose water through osmosis. Such concentrated solution is
called Hypertonic solution. The cell will therefore, shrink and reduce in volume.
This process is known as Exosmosis.
Tissues
Group of cells having a common origin and
similar function are termed as tissues.
A. Plant tissues: On the basis of the dividing
capacity, plant tissues are of two types:
1.Meristematic tissues .
2.Permanent tissues
 1. Meristematic tissues: Consist of actively-
dividing cells. Meristematic tissues are of three
types:

.
•Apical meristem: Present at the growing tips of
stems and roots. Important function: To increase
the length of stems and roots.
•Intercalary meristem: Present at the base of
leaves or internodes. Important function: For the
longitudinal growth of plants.
.
•Lateral meristem: Present on the lateral sides
of the stems and roots. Important function: To
increase the thickness of stems and roots.
Permanent tissues: Formed from meristematic tissues, the
cells in the tissue loose the ability to divider Permanent
tissues are divided into two categories:
•Simple permanent tissue: Consist of only one type of cells.
Types of simple permanent tissues:
• Parenchyma: Composed of unspecialised living cells with
relatively thin cell walls, intercellular space, present in soft parts
.
of the plant. Their main function is storage.
• Collenchyma: Composed of living and elongated cells with cell
walls irregularly thickened at the comers. No intercellular space.
It provides mechanical support and elasticity to plant. It helps in
bending of leaves and stems.
• Sclerenchyma: Composed of long, narrow, and thick-walled
cells. This tissue is made up of dead cells and there are no
intercellular spaces. Sclerenchyma cells are dead, present in
seeds, nuts, the husk of a coconut, fibres of jute etc.
•Complex permanent tissue: Made up of more
than one type of cells (Conducting tissues.)
Types of complex permanent tissues:
• Xylem: Conducts water and minerals from the roots
to the different parts of the plant.
Composed of four different types of cells—tracheids,
.
vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem fibres.
• Phloem: Conducts food material from the leaves to
the different parts of the plant.
Composed of four different types of cells—sieve
tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and
phloem fibres.
Protective tissue: It is made of a single layer of cells.
E.g., epidermis. The epidermis of the leaf bears
stomata.
Animal tissues: Animal tissues are classified
into four types based on the functions they
perform:
1.Epithelial
2.Connective
3.Muscular .
4.Nervous
Animal tissues: Animal tissues are classified into
four types based on the functions they perform:
1.Epithelial
2.Connective
3.Muscular
.
4.Nervous
1.Epithelial tissues: Form the covering of the external
surfaces, internal cavities and organs of the animal
body. Various types of epithelial tissues are:
1.Simple squamous epithelium: Single layer of flat cells.
Location in the human body: Lining of the mouth,
oesophagus, lung, alveoli, etc.
.
2.Cuboidal epithelium: Consists of cube like cells.
Location in the human body: Lining of the kidney tubules
and ducts of the salivary glands. It’s function is secretion
and absorption.
3.Columnar epithelium: Consists of elongated or column-
like cells.
Location in the human body: Inner lining of the intestine
and gut. Its function is of secretion and absorption.
1.Connective tissues: Specialised to connect various
body organs. Various types of connective tissues:,
are:
1.Areolar tissue: Found in the skin and muscles, around
the blood vessels, nerves, etc.
2.Adipose tissue: Acts as the storage site of fats; found
.
between the internal organs and below the skin; acts as
an insulator for the body.
3.Dense regular connective tissue: Main components are
tendons and ligaments; tendons connect muscles to
bones, while ligaments connect two bones together.
4.Skeletal tissue: Main components of skeletal tissues are
cartilage and bone.
5.Fluid tissue: Blood is the vascular tissue present in
animals.
1.Muscular tissues: Main function of muscular
tissues is to provide movement to the body. Muscular
tissues are of three types:
1.Striated muscles or skeletal muscles or voluntary
muscles: Cells are cylindrical, unbranched and
multinucleate.
.
2.Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles: Cells are long,
spindle-shaped and possess a single nucleus.
3.Cardiac muscles or involuntary muscles: Cells are
cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.
2.Nervous tissues: Present in the brain, spinal cord
and nerves.
1.Neuron: Cells of the nervous tissue.
2.A neuron: consists of a cell body, an axon and a dendrite.