Chapter 3:

Problem Solving
and Reasoning
 Learning Objectives
o Compare and contrast inductive and deductive reasoning.
o Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and
arguments made about mathematics and mathematical
concepts.
o Apply the Polya’s four-step in problem solving.
o Organize one’s methods and procedures for proving and
solving problems.
o Perform operations on mathematical expressions correctly.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Learning Objectives
o Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
o Express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.
o Support the use of mathematics in various aspects and
endeavors in life.
o Affirm honesty and integrity in the application of
mathematics to various human endeavors.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Topic Outline

I. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

II. Intuition, Proof, and Certainty

III. Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving

IV. Problem Solving Strategies

V. Mathematical Problems involving Patterns

IV. Recreational Problems using Mathematics

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is drawing a general

conclusion from a repeated observation
or limited sets of observations of specific
examples.

Given data, then we draw conclusion

based from the frame these data or simply
from specific case to general case.

Conjecture is drawing conclusion using inductive reasoning.

The conjecture may be true or false depending on the

truthfulness of the argument.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Goldbach Conjecture

Christian Goldbach
(1690-1764)
Russian Mathematician

Letter from Goldbach to Euler , 1742

Every even integer greater than 2

can be expressed as the sum of
Leonard Euler two primes.
(1707-1783)
Swiss Mathematician

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Fermat’s Last Theorem

Fermat's Last Theorem (or Fermat's conjecture)

No three positive integers a, b, and c satisfy the
equation an + bn = cn for any integer value
of n greater than 2. 
Pierre de Fermat 
1607-1665) French
Mathematician 

Wiles proved the Fermat’s Last Theorem on

September 19, 1994 and was published in
May 1995 in a dedicated volume of the
Annals of Mathematics. Sir Andrew John Wiles 
British mathematician 

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Inductive Reasoning

Counterexample if a statement is a
true statement provided that it is true
in all cases and it only takes one
example to prove the conjecture is false.

Example 1: 1 is an odd number.

11 is an odd number.
21 is an odd number.
Thus, all number ending with 1 are odd numbers.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Inductive Reasoning

Example 2: Essay test is difficult.

Problem solving test is difficult.
Therefore, all tests are difficult

Example 3: Mark is a Science teacher.

Mark is bald.
Therefore, all Science teachers are bald.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is
drawing general to specific
examples or simply from
general case to specific case.

Deductive starts with a general

statement (or hypothesis) and
examines to reach a specific
conclusion.

Example 4: All birds have feathers.

Ducks are birds.
Therefore, ducks have feathers.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Deductive Reasoning

Example 5: Christopher is sick.

If Christopher is sick, he won’t be able to go to work.
Therefore, Christopher won’t be able to go to work.

Example 6: All Science teachers are bald.

Mark is a Science teacher.
Therefore, Mark is bald.

Note: Logical reasoning maybe valid but not necessarily true.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning

Deductive
Reasoning

General Special
Principle Case

Inductive
Reasoning

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Intuition, Proofs and Certainty

Intuitive can be found in mathematical

literature and discovery.

Srinivasa Ramanujan wrote a letter to Godfrey

Harold Hardy on infinite sums, products,
fractions, and roots.

Ramanujan's formulas prove there is

mathematical intuition, though he didn't prove
them.

Hardy made a sound judgment without directly

proving the formulas of Ramanujan's were
correct.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Intuition
Mathematical intuition. Intuition is a
reliable mathematical belief without
being formalized and proven directly and
serves as an essential part of
mathematics.
“Intuition” carries a heavy load of mystery
and ambiguity and it is not legitimate
substitute for a formal proof.

Intuitive is being visual and is absent from the rigorous formal

or abstract version.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Proofs

Proof is an inferential argument

for a mathematical statement.

Mathematical argument like

theorems can only be used if it is
already proven.

Axioms may be served as conditions that must be met before

the statement applies.

Proofs are examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning and

inductive reasoning.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Proofs

A mathematical proof demonstrates that a certain statement is

always true in all possible cases.

An unproved proposition that is believed to be true is known

as a conjecture.

If one has a conjecture, the only way that it can safely be sure
that it is true, is by presenting a valid mathematical proof.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Certainty

Mathematics has a tradition and

standard point of view that it provides
certainty.

A correct formulated mathematical

knowledge is forever beyond error and
correction.

Mathematical certainty is an essential defining attribute of

mathematics and mathematical knowledge.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving

George Polya (1887-1985) was a

mathematics educator who strongly
believed that the skill of problem solving
can be taught.

He developed a framework known as

Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving.

The process addressed the difficulty of students in problem

solving.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Polya’s Four-Steps in Problem Solving

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Devise a plan.

Step 3: Carry out the plan.

Step 4: Look back.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Process of Problem Solving

Mathematical
Original Problem Translate Version of the
Problem

Solve
Check

Solution to the
Interpret Answer to
mathematical
Original Problem
version

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Step 1: Understanding the Problem
What is the goal?

What is being asked?

What is the condition?

What sort of a problem is it?

What is known or unknown?

Is there enough information?

Can you draw a figure to illustrate the problem?

Is there a way to restate the problem? In your own words?

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Step 2: Devise a Plan
Act it out.

Be systematic.
Work backwards.
Consider special cases.

Eliminate possibilities.
Perform an experiment.
Draw a picture/diagram.

Make a list or table/chart.

Use a variable, such as x.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Step 2: Devise a Plan

Look for a formula/formulas.

Write an equation (or model).

Look for a pattern or patterns.

Use direct or indirect reasoning.

Solve a simple version of the problem.

Guess and check your answer (trial and error).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Step 3: Carry Out the Plan
Be patient.
Work carefully.

Modify the plan or try a new plan.

Keep trying until something works.

Implement the strategy and strategies in Step 2.

Try another strategy if the first one isn’t working.

Keep a complete and accurate record of your work.

Be determined and don’t get discouraged if the plan does not

work immediately.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Step 4: Look Back
Look for an easier solution.
Does the answer make sense?

Check the results in the original problem.

Interpret the solution with the facts of the problem.

Recheck any computations involved in the solution.

Can the solution be extended to a more general case?

Ensure that all the conditions related to the problem are met.

Determine if there is another method of finding the solution.

Ensure the consistency of the solution in the context of the problem.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies
Example 1: Suppose the NCAA basketball
championships is decided on a best of
five series game. In how many diff. ways
can a team win the championships?
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

Many different orders to win the championships.

Team may have won WWW or LLWWW.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Make an organized list of all possible orders and ensure
that each of the different orders is accounted for only
once.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Problem Solving Strategies

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

Each entry in the list must contain three Ws and may
contain one or two losses.

WWW (Start with three wins)

WWLW (Start with two wins)
WWLLW (Start with two wins)
WLWW (Start with one win)
WLLWW (Start with one win)
WLWLW (Start with one win)
LWWW (Start with one loss)
LWWLW (Start with one loss)
LWLWW (Start with one loss)
LLWWW (Start with two losses)

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies
Step 4: Look Back.
Check if the the list contains no duplications.
Includes all possibilities.
Conclude that there are ten (10) different ways in to win
the NCAA championships in the best of 5 games.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies

Example 2: Two times the sum of a number and 3 is equal to

thrice the number plus 4. Find the number.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.

Read the question carefully several times.

Look for a number, and let x be a number.

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Translate: two times the
sum of a number and 3 is  2(x + 3) = 3x + 4
equal to thrice the number
plus 4.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Problem Solving Strategies
Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.
Solve for the value of x,

2(x + 3) = 3x + 4
2x + 6 = 3x + 4
3x – 2x = 6 – 4
x=2
Step 4: Look Back.

If we take two times the sum of 2 and 3, that is the

same as thrice the number 2 plus 4 which is 10, so this
does check.
Thus, the number is 2.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Problem Solving Strategies

Example 3: Three siblings Sofia, Achaiah and Riana. Sofia gave

Achaiah and Riana as much money as each had.
Then Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money
as each had. Then Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as
much money as each had. Then each of the three
had ₧128. How much money did each have
originally?

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.
The problem is confusing and must be carefully
analyzed.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies

Step 2: Devise a Plan.

We will be working backwards.

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

The problem has four stages..

4th : Each has ₧128.

3rd : Riana gave Sofia and Achaiah as much money as each has.
2nd : Achaiah gave Sofia and Riana as much money as each has.
1st : Sofia gave Achaiah and Riana as much money as each has.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies

Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana

Fourth ₧128 ₧128 ₧128
Third 64 64 256
Second 32 224 128
First 208 112 64

Initially Sofia had ₧208, Achaiah had ₧112, and Riana had ₧64.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies
Step 4: Look Back.
We check the result.
Stages Sofia Achaiah Riana
First 208 112 64

Second 208 – 112 – 64 = 32 112 + 112 = 224 64 + 64 = 128

Third 32 + 32 = 64 224 – 32 – 128 = 64 128 + 128 = 256

Fourth 64 + 64 = 128 64 + 64 = 128 256 – 64 – 64 = 128

Thus, Sofia, Achaiah, and Riana’s initial money are ₧208, ₧112,
and ₧64, respectively.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Problem Solving Strategies
Example 4: If the length of the top of a rectangle is 15 inches
more than its width and the area is 1,350 square
inches. Find the dimension of the table.

Solution:
Step 1: Understand the Problem.
Look for the length and width of
the table.

Let l be the length

w be the width

The length is 15 inches longer than the width (l = 15 + w).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Problem Solving Strategies
Step 2: Devise a Plan.

Area = lw
1,350 = lw = (15 + w)w

Step 3: Carry Out the Plan.

1,350 = (15 + w)w
1,350 = 15w + w2
w2 – 15w = 1,350
(w + 45)(w – 30) = 0
w + 45 = 0 w – 30 = 0
w = –45 w = 30
The width of the rectangle is 30.
The length is l = 15 + w = 15 + 30 = 45 inches.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Problem Solving Strategies
Step 4: Look Back.

If the width of a rectangle is 30 inches and the length is

15 inches longer than the width which is 45 inches.

The area of a rectangle is

Area = lw = 30(45) = 1,350 square inches.

Thus, the width is 30 and the length is 45 inches.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns

Mathematics is useful to predict.

Number pattern leads directly to the

concept of functions in mathematics.

Number pattern is applied to problem-

solving whether a pattern is present and
used to generalize a solution to a problem.

Pattern can be in the form

counting up or down and the
missing number is of the form
of completing count up or
down.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Famous Number Patterns

Fibonacci Sequence – 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …

Prime number pattern – 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, …

Imaginary number pattern

Geometric number pattern

Growing number pattern

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Sequence

Infinite sequence is a function whose domain is the set of

positive integers.

Terms of the sequence are a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an–1, an, …

Finite sequence. If the domain of the function consists of the

first n positive integers only, the sequence is a.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Finite and Infinite Sequence

a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
b. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 Finite sequences
c. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15

d. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, …
e. 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, … Infinite sequences
f. f. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 General Sequence

A general sequence a1, a2, a3, a4, …, an–1, an, … having the first
term a1, the second term is a2, the third term is a3, and the nth
term, also called the general term of the sequence, is an.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 General Sequence

Example 2: Write the first three terms of the sequence whose

nth term is given by the formula an = 3n + 1.

Solution:
an = 3n + 1

a1 = 3(1) + 1 = 3 + 1 = 4 Replace n by 1.

a2 = 3(2) + 1 = 6 + 1 = 7 Replace n by 2.

a3 = 3(3) + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10 Replace n by 3.
Thus, the first three terms of the sequence are 4, 7, and 10.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Difference Table

Difference table shows the differences between successive

terms of the sequence..

Differences in rows maybe the first, second, and third

differences.

Each number in the first row of the table is the differences

between the closest numbers just above it.

If the first differences are not the same, compute the successive
differences of the first differences .

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Difference Table

Example 3: Construct the difference table to predict the next

term of each sequence.
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …
b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, …
c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Difference Table

Solution:
a. 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …

Sequence 3 7 11 15 19 23

First differences 4 4 4 4 4

The next term is 23.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Difference Table

Solution:
b. 1, 4, 9, 17, 28, …

Sequence 1 4 9 17 28 42
+
First differences 3 5 8 11 14
+
Second differences 3 3 3 3

The next term is 42.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Difference Table

Solution:
c. 6, 9, 14, 26, 50, 91, …

Sequence 6 9 14 26 50 91 154
+
First differences 3 5 12 24 41 63
+
Second differences 2 7 12 17 22
+
Third differences 5 5 5 5

The next term is 154.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns

Example 4: Determine the nth term formula for the following

polygonal numbers in the nth figure:
(a) triangular number;
(b) square number;
(c) pentagonal number; and
(d) hexagonal number.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
Solution:
A polygonal number is a type of figurative number represented
as dots or pebbles arranged in the shape of a regular polygon.

a. Triangular Number
1 3 6 10 15

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
Solution:
The number sequence is
n=1 1
n=2 1+2=3
n=3 1+2+3=6
n=4 1+2+3+4=6
n=5 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
n=6 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 21

Generalized as Tn = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + (n – 1) + n = ½(n2 + n)

Expansion: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns

b. Square Number
1 4 9 16 25

The number sequence is

n=1 12 = 1
n=2 22 = 4
n=3 32 = 9
n=4 42 = 16
n=5 52 = 25
n=6 62 = 36

Generalized as Sn = ½(2n2 – 0n) = n2

Expansion: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
c. Pentagonal Number
1 5 12 22 35

The number sequence is

n=1 1
n=2 1+4=5
n=3 1 + 4 + 7 = 12
n=4 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 = 22
n=5 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 = 35
n=6 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 = 51

Generalized as Pn = ½(3n2 – n) = ½(3n2 – n)

Expansion: 1, 5, 12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 90, 117, 145, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
d. Hexagonal Number
1 6 15 28 45

The number sequence is

n=1 1
n=2 1+5=6
n=3 1 + 5 + 9 = 15
n=4 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 = 28
n=5 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 = 45
n=6 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + 21 = 66

Generalized as Hn = ½(4n2 – 2n) = 2n2 – n

Expansion: 1, 6, 15, 28, 45, 66, 91, 120, 153, 190, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
Example 5: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects vertices
(corners) of the polygon. Following are polygons: triangle,
quadrilateral, pentagon, and hexagon.

Determine the number of diagonals in a heptagon and an octagon.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
Solution:
The sequence of the diagonals
Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8
Number of Diagonals 0 2 5 9    

Difference table

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
Pentagon has 14 diagonals

Octagon has 20 diagonals

Heptagon Octagon

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns

Example 6: Given a circle with n points on its perimeter what is

the maximum number of regions determined by the
chords and the circle rim.

Solution:
When n = 0 and continuing the case to n = 6.

Locate a point on a circle and connect it with other point on a

circle and count the number of regions it generates.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
The number of chords and regions produced with given n
points on a circle.

Summary Table
No. of Points 1 2 3 4 5 6
No. of Chords 0 1 3 6 10 15
No. of Regions 1 2 4 8 14 31

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Mathematical Problem involving Patterns
Seven points on a circle: Maximum number of regions is 57.

Eight points on a circle: Maximum number of regions is 99.

Using the Pascal’s

triangle and split the
diagram.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Recreational Problems using Mathematics

One of ancient “square” mathematical recreations of all is the

magic square.

A Chinese myth, on the time of Emperor Yu, came across a

sacred turtle with a strange marking on its shell known as Lo
Shu.

Lo Shu
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Recreational Problems using Mathematics

The markings are numbers, and they form a

square pattern of order 3.
In 1514 the artist Albrecht Durer made an
engraving “Melancholia”, containing a square
pattern of order 4. Albrecht Durer

Durer’s
Melancholia

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Magic Square

Magic square of order n is an arrangement of numbers in a

square such that the sum of the n numbers in each row, column,
and diagonal is the same number.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Palindrome

A palindrome is a number (or word, or phrase) sequence of

characters (or symbols) which reads the same backward as
forward, for example 131, 12,321, 1,234,321, etc.

Palindromes of squares are as follows:

12 = 1
112 = 121
1112 = 12,321
1,1112 = 1,234,321
11,1112 = 123,454,321
111,1112 = 12,345,654,321
1,111,1112 = 1,234,567,654,321
11,111,1112 = 123,456,787,654,321
:

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 9-digit Palindromic Primes

Plateau Primes Smoothly Undulating 5 Consecutive Digits

18888881 323232323 120343021
199999991 727272727 354767543
355555551 919191919 759686957

8 like Digits Peak Primes Valley Primes

111181111 123494321 765404567

111191111 345676543 987101789
777767777 345686543 987646789

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Pascal’s Triangle

One of the most famous palindrome

triangles is the Pascal’s Triangle named
after French mathematician Blaise
Pascal (1623-1662).

The Pascal’s triangle has intrigued

mathematicians for hundreds of years.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Pascal’s Triangle
The Triangle was first published by Zhu Shijie (1260-1320) a
Chinese mathematician in 1303 in his “Si Yuan Yu Jian”.

It was called Jia Xian Triangle or Yanghui Triangle by the

Chinese.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Pascal’s and Fibonacci Sequence

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Simple Number Triangles

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Lazy Caterer’s Problem
Example 1: The lazy caterer’s sequence
describes the maximum number of
pieces of a pizza that can be made with a
given number of straight cuts. One
straight cut across a pizza produces 2
pieces. Two straight cuts produce a
maximum of 4 pieces. Three straight
cuts produce a maximum of 7 pieces.
Four straight cuts produce a maximum of 11 pieces. Determine
the number of pieces in which it is the maximum possible
pieces to divide the pizza for a given number of straight cuts.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Lazy Caterer’s Problem
Solution:
Illustrating the number of cuts and the number of regions it
creates.

To maximize the number of pieces in the next cut, then nth cut
must cut each of the n – 1 previous one.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Lazy Caterer’s Problem

The new cut meets one of the n – 1 previous one, a pizza piece
is cut in two.

A piece cut in two when the new cut finishes on the opposite
side of the pizza.

The total number of pieces of pizza increases by n when we

pass from n – 1 cuts to n cut, which is exactly what the
recurrence reveals.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Lazy Caterer’s Problem

The recurrence relation in nth cut creates new regions,

f(1) = 2
f(2) = 4 = 2 + f(1)
f(3) = 7 = 3 + f(2)
f(4) = 11 = 4 + f(3)
:
f(n) = n + f(n – 1)

Therefore, f(n) = n + f(n – 1).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Lazy Caterer’s Problem

 f(n) = n + (n – 1) + (n – 2) + … + 2 + f(1)
= f(1) +
= 2 + ½(n + 2)(n – 1)
= 2 + ½(n2 + n – 2)
= ½(n2 + n + 2)

Evaluating for
n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, … gives 1, 2, 4, 7, 11, 16, 22, 29, …

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Fake Coin Problem

Example 2: There are twelve (12) coins (identical in

appearance) and a balance beam. If exactly one of
these coins is fake and heavier than the other
eleven, find the fake coin, using at most three
weighings on a balance beam.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Fake Coin Problem
Solution:
Balance beam has no graduations for weights; they just have two pans.

Label the coins 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.

Three possible outcomes:

(i) the two sides of the beam are balanced,
indicating that the coins in the two
pans are not fake.
(ii) the left pan of the beam goes
down, indicating that the fake
coin is in the left pan.

(iii) the right pan of the beam goes

down, indicating that the fake
coin is in the right pan.
Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.
 Fake Coin Problem

If tips to the left, the

fake coin is in the left
side of the beam.

If tips to the right, the

fake coin is in the right
side of the beam.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Fake Coin Problem
There are two possibilities:

If 4 and 5 are balance, then

coin 6 is the fake coin.

If the one of the coins between 4 and 5

goes down, then it is the fake coin.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Magic Six Pointed Star

Example 3: Given a magic six pointed star, place the numbers 1

to 12 in the circles, using one of each. Each line of
four numbers should have the same total.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Magic Six Pointed Star
Solution:

There are six lines in the magic pointed star.

Adding each line, each of the number is considered twice.

Adding the numbers 1 to 12,

26
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 12 = 78
2(78) = 156
26
26
Divide the sum of the totals 156 by the lines
obtaining a value of 26.

26
26

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D. 26

 Alphametic

An Alphametic is a type of number puzzle containing sum (or

other arithmetic operation) in which digits (0 to 9) are
replaced by letters of the alphabet.

One of the most famous alphametic puzzles is the one

introduced by Henry Dudeney in 1924.

He was an English author and

mathematician who specialized in logic
puzzles and mathematical games.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Alphametic

Example 4: Find which digit is equivalent by each of the letters

so that the addition is correct.

Solution:
The numbers SEND, MORE, and MONEY;

S and M cannot be zero.

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Alphametic
The sum of two four-digit numbers cannot exceed 19,998; thus,
M is 1.

S + 1 = O.
Recall: S + 1 = 10 + O
(Note S  1 and O  1, since M = 1).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Alphametic
Note: There may or may not be a carry into the thousand place.
Thus, O = 0. No carry into the
thousand column, S = 9.

E + 0 = N.
N = E + 1. (Note: E  9 and N  0).

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Alphametic

N + R = E.
Note: N = E + 1, thus 1 + N + R = 9 + N or R = 8

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 Alphametic

D + E  12 (Since S = 9, R = 8, and D  1).

By elimination when D = 7, E = 5, and N = 6, then Y = 2.

The sum is

Copyright 2018: Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.

 The definition of a good
mathematical problem is the
mathematics it generates rather than
the problem itself.
– Andrew
Wiles
Copyright 2018:
Mathematics in the Modern World by Winston S. Sirug, Ph.D.