STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 1

(REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN)

Engr. Hessa G. Azul
 1. Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

2. Compressive and Tensile Strength of

Concrete

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Reinforced 3. Introduction to Loads (Dead and Live
Concrete Design Loads)

4. Code Provisions (NSCP)

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student may be able to:

● understand concrete as a construction material

● explain compressive and tensile strength of concrete
● identify concrete structures
● understand different types of loads
● calculate minimum loads of a building based on its occupancy
1.1 Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock, or other aggregates
held together in a rocklike mass with a paste of cement and water.
Concrete has a high compressive strength and a very low tensile strength.

Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel

reinforcement provides the tensile strength lacking in the concrete.

Steel reinforcing is also capable of resisting compression forces and is used in

columns as well as in other situations
Aggregates

The aggregates used in concrete occupy about three-fourths of the concrete volume.

Since they are less expensive than the cement, it is desirable to use as much of them
as possible.

Both fine aggregates (usually sand) and coarse aggregates (usually gravel or crushed
stone) are used.

Any aggregate that passes a No. 4 sieve (which has wires spaced 14 in. on centers in
each direction) is said to be fine aggregate.

Material of a larger size is coarse aggregate.

Water

According to Section 403.5, water used in mixing concrete shall be clean

and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials,
or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or reinforcement.

Mixing water for prestressed concrete or for concrete that will contain
aluminum embedments, including that portion of mixing water contributed in
the form of free moisture on aggregates, shall not contain deleterious
amounts of chloride ion. Non-potable (non-drinkable) water shall not be used
in concrete unless the following are satisfied:
 Non-potable (non-drinkable) water shall not be used in concrete unless
the following are satisfied:

- selection of concrete proportions shall be based on concrete mixes using

water from the same source and
- mortar test cubes made with non-potable mixing water shall have 7-day
and 28-day strengths equal to at least 90 percent of strengths of similar
specimens made with potable water.
1.2 Compressive and Tensile Strength of Concrete
Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of concrete, f’c, is determined by testing to

failure 28-day-old 6-in. diameter by 12-in. concrete cylinders at a specified rate
of loading.

For the 28-day period, the cylinders are usually kept under water or in a
room with constant temperature and 100% humidity.

To ensure that the compressive strength of concrete in the structure is at

least as strong as the specified value, f’c , the design of the concrete mix must
target a higher value, f’cr.
Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete varies from about 8% to 15% of its compressive
strength. A major reason for this small strength is the fact that concrete is filled with fine
cracks. Once tensile cracking has occurred, concrete has no more tensile strength.

This strength is quite difficult to measure with direct axial tension loads because of
problems in gripping test specimens so as to avoid stress concentrations and because of
difficulties in aligning the loads.

Two indirect tests have been developed to measure concrete’s tensile strength. These
are:

1. modulus of rupture (ASTM C78); and

2. split-cylinder tests.
Tensile Strength

The modulus of rupture (which is defined as the flexural tensile strength

of concrete) is usually measured by loading a 6-in. × 6-in. × 30-in. plain (i.e.,
unreinforced) rectangular beam (with simple supports placed 24 in. on center)
to failure with equal concentrated loads at its one-third points. The load is
increased until failure occurs by cracking on the tensile face of the beam.

The modulus of rupture, fr, is then determined from the flexure formula.
In the following expressions, b is the beam width, h is its depth, and M is PL/6,
which is the maximum computed moment:
Fiber-Reinforced Concretes
The fibers used are made from steel, plastics, glass, and other materials. Various
experiments have shown that the addition of such fibers in convenient quantities
(normally up to about 1% or 2% by volume) to conventional concretes can appreciably
improve their characteristics.

Steel is the most commonly used material for the fibers. The resulting concretes
seem to be quite durable, at least as long as the fibers are covered and protected by
the cement mortar. Concretes reinforced with steel fibers are most often used in
pavements, thin shells, and precast products as well as in various patches and
overlays. Glass fibers are more often used for spray-on applications as in shotcrete.
Reinforcing Steel
The reinforcing used for concrete structures may be in the form of bars or welded
wire fabric.

Reinforcing bars are referred to as plain or deformed. The deformed bars, which
have ribbed projections rolled onto their surfaces (patterns differing with different
manufacturers) to provide better bonding between the concrete and the steel, are used
for almost all applications. Instead of rolled-on deformations, deformed wire has
indentations pressed into it.

Plain bars are not used very often except for wrapping around longitudinal bars,
primarily in columns.
Grades of Reinforcing Steel
There are several types of reinforcing bars, designated by the ASTM, which are listed
after this paragraph.

These steels are available in different grades as Grade 50, Grade 60, and so on,
where Grade 50 means the steel has a specified yield point of 50,000 psi, Grade 60
means 60,000 psi, and so on.

It is essential for people in the shop and the field to be able to identify at a glance
the sizes and grades of reinforcing bars. If they are not able to do this, smaller and lower-
grade bars other than those intended by the designer may be used. To prevent such
mistakes, deformed bars have rolled-in identification markings on their surfaces.
1.3 Introduction to Loads
The most important and most difficult task faced by the structural designer is
the accurate estimation of the loads that may be applied to a structure during its
life. No loads that may reasonably be expected to occur may be overlooked.

After loads are estimated, the next problem is to decide the worst possible
combinations of these loads that might occur at one time. For instance, would a
highway bridge completely covered with ice and snow be simultaneously subjected
to fast-moving lines of heavily loaded trailer trucks in every lane and to a 90-mile
lateral wind, or is some lesser combination of these loads more reasonable?
Dead Loads
Dead loads are loads of constant magnitude that remain in one position.
They include the weight of the structure under consideration as well as any
fixtures that are permanently attached to it. For a reinforced concrete
building, some dead loads are the frames, walls, floors, ceilings, stairways,
roofs, and plumbing.
Live Loads
Live loads are loads that can change in magnitude and position. They
include occupancy loads, warehouse materials, construction loads, overhead
service cranes, equipment operating loads, and many others.

Live loads that move under their own power are called moving loads.
Other live loads are those caused by wind, rain, earthquakes, soils and
temperature changes. Wind and earthquake loads are called lateral loads.
1.4 Code Provisions
Code provisions on minimum design loads and load combinations are
attached in the CNSC LMS.
Thank you.