non mendalian patterns of

inheritance
 Principle of Incomplete Dominance
● One pattern discovered is that one allele is not
completely dominant over the other allele resulting
in the blending of characteristics or the appearance
of an intermediate phenotype possessed by the
two parents.one example is flower color in hibiscus
(gumamela)and mirabilis jalapa(four o’ clock
flower).A cross between a red-colored flower and
another white-colored flower would result in the
production of offspring that are pink-colored
 Principle Of codominance
-One pattern discovered is that one allele is not
completely dominant over the other allele resulting
in the blending of characteristics or the appearance
of an intermediate phenotype possessed by the
two parents.One example is flower color
hibiscus(gumamela)and mirabilis jalapa (four
o'clock flower).A cross between a red-colored
flower and another white-colored flower would
result in the production of offspring that are pink-
colored.
 Table 2.3:cross between a red flower and a white flower

•a
 Principle of codominance
● in some cases the heterozygous characteristics are both fully
expressed in the F, offspring in a phenomenon called
codominance as in coat color in cattle bot red and white coat
colors in cattle are dominant. when a homozygous red coat-
colored cow (rr) is crossed with a homozygous white coat-
colored cow (ww), the F, offspring are all heterozygous roan
coat(fur)-colored cattle (rw).A roan coat color is one in which the
coat color is the mixture of the red and white coat color (figure
2.11
Pri
Principle of Multiple alleles

The traits that have been discussed in the preceding sections

are traits that are controlled by two alleles for a given trait.The
genes for a particular trait are located in specific loci in the
chromosomes.Through the help of modern technology,geneticist
discovered that there are some traits that are not controlled only
by two alleles but by multiple alleles.
One example of traits controlled by multiple alleles is the
HUMAN BLOOD GROUPS-A,B,AB and O.these letters refer to

two types of proteins designated as A and B that are

incorporated in the plasma membranes of red blood cells.
although an individual can only have two alleles per gene, three
alleles control this characteristic,which in various
combinations,produce the four human blood groups:A,B,AB and
O, table 2.6 shows the relationships and the possible genotypes
and phenotypes of the human blood groups.
Table 2.6:The Human blood relationship
 Table 2.6 shows that the alleles for A (|A) and B (|B) are
dominant over the O (i) allele.People with blood type O carry the
homozygous alleles for O(ii).This means that they lack the A and B
alleles in their blood.A person heterozygous for blood type AB
carries the alleles for A and B and since both alleles are expressed,
these alleles are codominant with each other.The discussion of the
cardiovascular system provide the information as regards the
importance of the antigen and antibody and antibody factors in the
blood in blood transfusion.
A person’s blood type can be done through a simple test.This
is the reason why it is used as evidence in paternity suits.Blood
tests can be used as evidence whether the man could be or could
not be the father of a certain child,although blood type alone does
not prove that he is table 2.7 gives a sample cross between a
heterozygous blood type A female and a heterozygous blood type B
male.
● Another example of a train controlled by multiple
genes is coat color in rabbits.there four types of
coat color in rabbits (figure 2.12)and each type
denotes specific all alleles.the agouti coat is pure
black,or yellow and sometimes with patches.the
chinchilla coat appears silvery gray himalayan has
white coats with black color on the extremities.the
fourth is the albino coat that apears pure white due
to the absence of pigmentation
Agouti coat
Chinchilla coat
Himalayan coat
Albino coat
Table 2.8 shows the genotypes of the different coat colors in
rabbits.take note that among the alleles agouti is the most
dominant among the coat,followed by the chinchilla,the
himalaya,and the albino,which is the most recessive among the
four.
 Sex linked genes
● Sex-linked traits that are controlled by the genes found in the
sex chromosomes (both X or Y).Sex-linked traits are
recessive.in most cases,the recessive gene or allele was
inherited from one or both of the parents.Sex-linked traits affect
mostly male offspring.This is because they have only one X
chromosome,which they inherit from their mother.if the X
chromosome carries a genetic disorder,such disorder will be
expressed in them.In contrast,The two X chromosomes of the
female offspring should both carry the disorder before it can be
expressed.Examples of sex linked traits carried by the genes in
the X chromosomes are color blindness and hemophilia (also
called bleeder’s disease)
 Hemophilia
A recessive genetic disorder where in the blood does not clot.This is caused by the
lack of genes that synthesize the protein that is needed to initiate the blood clotting
process.hemophiliacs bleed excessively and if not medically controlled can cause
death.
Analyze the crosses in the table 2.10 to 2.12 to have a full grasp of the inheritance of
sex-linked trait like hemophilia.
the genetic cross in table 2.10 shows a cross between a carrier female and normal
male and the probable phenotypes of the offspring that the couple would have.All
female offspring are normal(50%)although one is a carrier XX,one male offspring is
normal (25%)and one male offspring(25%)is hemophiliac.thus,The probability of
having sons who are hemophiliacs or bleeders is 25%
The genetic cross on table 2.12 shows that one of the daughters is
normal (25%)although a carrier the other daughter is a
hemophiliac(25%).One son is normal (25%)while the other son is a
hemophiliac (25%)
thus for the female to become a hemophiliac,both X chromosomes
should carry the recessive characteristic.That is,she has to inherit
the disorder from both her parents.Female carriers of the genetic
abnormality have the tendency to pass on the characteristic to their
male children.
History of hemophilia was well documented among the royal
families in england in the 19th century.The genetic recessive trait
becomes dominant as marrying close relatives was allowed to
happen as a way of strengthening family ties and international
alliances.
Color blindness is another example of sex-linked trait.it is
a condition where in the individual is unable to distinguish among
some or all colors.for them some colors appear as shades of
gray.it result from several common recessive disorders
associated with the X chromosomes.This happens since some
mutant forms of the genes change the light-absorbing capacity of
the sensory receptors inside the cells.
there are two alleles for eye vision,The dominant normal eye
vision (N) and the recessive colorblind vision(n).Both alleles are
found in the X chromosomes carry the dominant gene for normal
vision,the female individual definitely has normal eye vision.if
both X chromosomes carry the recessive gene (homozygous
alleles);The female individual will be colorblind.
If the female carries the heterozygous alleles, that is one X
chromosome carries the gene for normal vision and the other
chromosome carries the recessive gene for color blindness,then
the female individual is a carrier,but not colorblind.table 2.13
summarizes this discussion.
table 2.14:The genetic table for colorblindness

Sex-linked trait is also carried by the genes in the males Y

chromosome.Sex-linked traits associated with the y
chromosomes are called holandric traits.one typical example of
a holandric trait is trichocysts,which is the growth of hair in the
ears of aging males
 Sex-influenced trait
Sex-influenced trait is carried by the autosomes and not the sex
chromosomes.so, this trait is not restricted to male humans alone.
two alleles control this trait-the bald (b)the recessive gene and the
non-bald(b),the dominant gene.but the manner by which the trait
is expressed (phenotype)
is unusual. The phenotypical expression of the trait is controlled
by the hormone testosterone.both male and female humans have
the hormone;however,males have higher levels of testosterone
than females.as a result the recessive allele for baldness
(b)behaves like a dominant allele resulting in what is classically
described as “male pattern baldness.”Among females,the gene
for baldness behaves like a recessive allele. so that in all cases, a
male heterozygous for baldness will experience hair loss but a
heterozygous female will not also, a homozygous female may
only experience receding hairlines,bald spots in the head or
simply thinning of the hair.
Sex limited traits are those characters that are expressed
physically in one sex of a species. These traits are
controlled by sex limited genes or autosomal genes that
are expressed only in one sex.
These genes are present in both sexes of sexually
reproducing species. Although they are present in both
the sexes they are expressed in only one sex while in the
other they remain “turned off”, which means that the trait
has zero penetrance in the other sex. Despite having the
same genotype, both the sexes show different traits or
phenotypes for these genes. These genes are
esponsible for sexual dimorphism in a given species. Sex
r

hormone and other physiological differences between

male and female affect the expression of these genes.
These traits are primarily concerned with secondary
sexual characteristics. For example, in humans, breast
development is a trait that is normally limited to females,
whereas beard growth is limited to males. A woman does
not grow a beard herself but she can pass the genes of
heavy beard growth to her sons.
These genes enable both the sexes to settle down to
their optimal phenotypes by avoiding the intralocus
sexual conflict. This resolves the “push and pull” between
the sexes over the trait. The differences in both the sexes
can be displayed in size, color, and morphology.
An example for sex limited trait is the feathering pattern
in domestic chicken between cock and hen. Another
example is the milk secretion in cattle. Although both
sexes carry the milk controlling genes, only the female
cattle secrete milk.