MODULE 4

 
MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL: DATA
MANAGEMENT
 
LESSON 4.1 DATA
 DATA
Data are individual pieces of factual information
recorded and used for the purpose of analysis. It
is the raw information from which statistics are
created. It is a point to statistical facts,
principles, opinions, and various items of
different sources. It is the raw material of
statistical investigations−they arises whenever
measurements are made or observations are
recorded. It can be constant or variable.
 GATHERING and ORGANIZING DATA
Classification of Data
• Qualitative Data are data that can be placed into
categories according to their characteristics or
attributes. Data under this category cannot be
added, subtracted, multiplied or divide.
Examples: Gender, civil status, nationality.
• Quantitative Data are data which are numerical in
value. These data can be ordered or ranked.
Examples: Age, height, test scores and weights.
 Types of Data

• Continuous data are measures like feet, pounds, kilos,

minutes and meters. It can be made into measurement
of varying degree of precision.
Examples: 1 yard equals 3 feet, 1 foot equals 12 inches
• Discrete Data are measurement that expressed in
whole units. It can be counted and they are
represented by counting numbers only.
Examples: Counting of people, number of objects,
number of cars passing by, number of houses, number of
students, and number of workers and so on.
 Levels or Scales of Measurement of Data

• Nominal scales are used as measures of identity. This scale

distinguishes one object from another object for identifying purposes
only. There is no ranking or meaningful order among the categories.
Examples of this classification of individuals into categories like gender
(male or female), SSS number, TIN number, religious affiliation, political
parties and more such categories.
• Ordinal Scales classifies data into some specified order or rank.
These reveal which person or object is larger or smaller, harder or
softer, responses like Strongly Agree, Agree, No Opinion, Disagree
and Strongly Disagree.
Examples are the ranking of honor students in a class and ranking of
candidates in a beauty contest
 Levels or Scales of Measurement of Data

• Interval Scales specifies the precise difference between or

among the values or ranks. Data at this level may lack an
inherent zero staring point.
Examples are scores in a test, grades of students, ages,
blood pressures and Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers.
• Ratio Scale is the highest type of scale. Ratio level always
starts from zero. There is a meaning between values.
Examples are the measures of height, weight, length, width,
loudness or area.
 Variable
is a characteristic of a population or sample
which makes one different from the other.
 Classification of Variables

• Dependent Variable is affected or influenced by another

variable.
• Independent Variable is not requiring or relying on
something or somebody else. It is a variable that can
stand alone.
Example:
In a study on “The Effects of Staggered Food
Supply to a Sick Secluded Patient”
The independent variable is the staggered food supply.
The dependent variable is the sick secluded patient.
 Population
is the totality of all actual observable
characteristics of a set of objects or individuals.
The researcher may use the population as
subject of studies when it is small and
manageable when employing statistical
methods.
However, if the population is too large, the
researcher may use the representative sample.
 Sample
refers to the element of objects or individuals
selected from the population.
 Data Collection
is the process and methods of gathering
information by directly or indirectly.
 Parameter
is a value or a measure obtained from a
population. It is the characteristics of the
population. A parameter is the summary
description of a given variable in a population.
 Common Methods of Collecting Data

• Direct or Interview Method

The researcher makes direct and personal contact
with the interviewee.
The researcher gathers data by asking the
interviewee series of questions.
• Indirect or Questionnaire Method
The researcher distributes the questionnaires
either personally or by mail and collects then by
the same process.
 Common Methods of Collecting Data

• Registration Method
This method of collecting data is commonly
enforced by certain laws, ordinances and
standard practices.
In this method, information are kept
systematized and available to all because of the
requirement of the law.
 Sampling
may be defined as measuring a small portion
of something and then making a general
statement about the whole thing. It is the
method of getting a small part from the
population that serves as the representative of
the population.
 General Types of Sampling

A. Probability Sampling. In probability sampling, the

sample is a proportion (a certain percent) of the
population and such sample is selected from the
population by means of some systematic way in which
every element of the population has a chance of being
included in the sample.
B. Non-Probability Sampling. In non-probability
sampling, the sample is not a proportion of the
population and there is no system is selecting the
sample. The selection depends upon the situation.
 Types of Probability Sampling

1. Pure Random Sampling

This type of sampling is one in which everyone in
the population of the inquiry has an equal chance
of being selected to be included in the sample.
2. Systematic Random Sampling
This is a technique of sampling in which every Nth
name in a list may be selected to be included in a
sample. It is a restricted random sampling because
there are certain restrictions imposed upon it.
 Types of Probability Sampling

3. Stratified Random Sampling.

This is the process of selecting randomly, samples from the
different strata of the population used in the study. It is
used when the population of the inquiry has class
stratifications or groupings either horizontally or vertically.
4. Cluster Sampling (multistage cluster sampling).
Cluster sampling or multistage cluster sampling or simply
multistage sampling is used when the population is so big
or the geographical area of the research is so large. Its
advantage is its efficiency.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling

1. Accidental Sampling
In this type of sampling, there is no system of selection
but only those whom the researcher or interviewer
meet by chance are included in the sample.
2. Quota Sampling
In this type of sampling, specified numbers of persons
of certain types are included in the sample. It may be
used only when any of the more desirable types of
sampling will not do.
 Types of Non-Probability Sampling

• 3. Convenience Sampling
It is a process of picking out people in the most
convenient and fastest way to immediately get their
reactions to a certain hot and controversial issue.
4. Purposive Sampling
It is determining the target population, those to be
involved in the study.
The respondents are chosen on the basis of their
knowledge of the information desired.
 LESSON 4.1.2
REPRESENTING DATA USING GRAPHS and
CHARTS
 Presentation
is the process of organizing data into logical,
sequential and meaningful categories and
classifications to make them amenable to study
and interpretation.
 Methods of Presenting Data

1. Textual Method
This method presents the collected data in
narrative and paragraphs forms. It uses statements
with numerals or numbers to describe the data. 
2. Tabular Method
This method presents the collected data in table
which are orderly arranged in rows and columns for
an easier and more comprehensive comparison of
figures.
 Methods of Presenting Data

3. Graphical Method
Graph is a chart representing the
quantitative variations or changes of a variable
itself or quantitative changes of a variable in
comparison with those another variable in
pictorial of diagrammatic from.
 Graphical Method Used for Interval Data

A Histogram is a graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal axis and the class
frequencies on the vertical axis. The height of the bars represents the class frequencies and the
bars drawn are adjacent to each other (there are no spaces between bars).
It is used with grouped or class frequency distribution.
 
A Frequency Polygon is graphs that display the data using points which are connected by lines.
The frequencies are represented by the heights of the points at the midpoints of the classes. The
vertical axis represents the frequency of the distribution while the horizontal axis represents the
midpoints of the frequency distribution.
It is used to graph class or grouped frequency polygons.
 
A Cumulative Frequency Polygon (OGIVE) is a graph that displays the cumulative frequencies for
the classes in a frequency distribution. The vertical axis represents the cumulative frequency of
the distribution while the horizontal axis represents the upper class boundaries for the frequency
distribution.
It is used to graph cumulative frequencies (partial sums of frequencies), either cumulative
frequencies upward or cumulative downward.
 Graphical Method Used for Nominal Data

A Pareto Chart is a graph used to represent a frequency distribution for nominal data
and frequencies are displays by the heights of the vertical bars which are arranged
from highest to lowest.
 
A Bar Graph is similar to bar histogram. The bases of the rectangles are arbitrary
intervals whose center is the codes. The height of each rectangle represents the
frequency of that category.
 
The bars are separated from each other by a space equal to one-half the width of a
bar.
It is generally used to make comparisons of simple magnitudes very much more clearly
and more distinctly perceptible to the eyes.
 
A Circle Graph is a circle divided into portions that represent the relative frequencies
(or percentages) of the data belonging to different categories.
 
 Graphical Method Used for Nominal Data

A Pictograph immediately suggests the nature of the data being shown. It is a

combination of the attention getting quality and the accuracy of the bar graph.
Appropriate pictures arranged in a row (sometimes in column) present the
quantities for comparison.
 
It is used to portray data by means of pictures or symbols.
It is very attractable and never fails to catch attention.
Its only purpose is to make the comparison of magnitudes more clear.
 
Stem and Leaf Plot
 
A statistician named John Turkey introduced the stem-and-leaf plot.
The Stem is the leading digit or digits and the Leaf is the trailing digit.
The Stem is placed at the first column and the Leaf at the second column.