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 The Human Eye
Vision and Optical
Instruments
Other Optical Instruments

Vision and Optical Instruments

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Vision and Optical Instruments > The Human Eye

The Human Eye

• The Human Eye
• Color Vision
• Resolution of the Human Eye
• Nearsightedness, Farsidedness, and Vision Correction

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Vision and Optical Instruments > Other Optical Instruments

Other Optical Instruments

• The Magnifying Glass
• The Camera
• The Compound Microscope
• The Telescope
• X-Ray Diffraction
• X-Ray Imaging and CT Scans
• Specialty Microscopes and Contrast
• Limits of Resolution and Circular Aperatures
• The Lambda Limit
• Aberrations

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Appendix
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Vision and Optical Instruments

Key terms
• aberration The convergence to different foci, by a lens or mirror, of rays of light emanating from one and the same point, or the
deviation of such rays from a single focus; a defect in a focusing mechanism that prevents the intended focal point.
• achromatic free from color; transmitting light without color-related distortion
• aperture The diameter of the aperture that restricts the width of the light path through the whole system. For a telescope, this
is the diameter of the objective lens (e.g., a telescope may have a 100 cm aperture).
• aperture The diameter of the aperture that restricts the width of the light path through the whole system. For a telescope, this
is the diameter of the objective lens (e.g., a telescope may have a 100 cm aperture).
• chromatic aberration an optical aberration, in which an image has colored fringes, caused by differential refraction of light of
different wavelengths
• chromatic aberration an optical aberration, in which an image has colored fringes, caused by differential refraction of light of
different wavelengths
• constructive interference Occurs when waves interfere with each other crest to crest and the waves are exactly in phase with
each other.
• contrast A difference in lightness, brightness and/or hue between two colors that makes them more or less distinguishable
• convex curved or bowed outward like the outside of a bowl or sphere or circle
• crystallography The experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in solids.
• destructive interference Occurs when waves interfere with each other crest to trough (peak to valley) and are exactly out of
phase with each other.
• diffraction The bending of a wave around the edges of an opening or an obstacle.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

• diopter a unit of measure of the power of a lens or mirror, equal to the reciprocal of its focal length in meters. Myopia is
diagnosed and measured in diopters
• distortion (optics) an aberration that causes magnification to change over the field of view.
• dynamic contrast ratio Luminosity ratio of the brightest and darkest color the system is capable of processing over time (while
the picture is moving).
• field of view The angular extent of what can be seen, either with the eye or with an optical instrument or camera.
• hyperopia A disorder of the vision where the eye focusses images behind the retina instead of on it, so that distant objects can
be seen better than near objects.
• lens an object, usually made of glass, that focuses or defocuses the light that passes through it
• luminance The intensity of an object, independent from its color.
• myopia A disorder of the vision where distant objects appear blurred because the eye focuses their images in front of the
retina instead of on it.
• nanostructure Any manufactured structure having a scale between molecular and microscopic.
• pupil The hole in the middle of the iris of the eye, through which light passes to be focused on the retina.
• radiography The use of X-rays to view a non-uniformly composed material such as the human body.
• refraction Changing of a light ray's direction when it passes through variations in matter.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

• shutter speed The duration of time for which the shutter of a camera remains open when exposing photographic film or other
photosensitive material to light for the purpose of recording an image
• spherical aberration a type of lens aberration that causes blurriness, particularly away from the center of the lens
• static contrast ratio Luminosity ratio of the brightest and darkest color the system is capable of processing simultaneously at
any instant of time.
• superimposed Positioned on or above something else, especially in layers
• tomography Imaging by sections or sectioning.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Near Sighted Vision

This occurs when the image is formed before the retina

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OpenStax CNX. "Free High School Science Texts Project, Geometrical Optics: The Human Eye (Grade 11). December 25, 2012." CC BY 3.0
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Vision and Optical Instruments

Schematic of Keplerian Refracting Telescope

All refracting telescopes use the same principles. The combination of an objective lens 1 and some type of eyepiece 2 is used to gather more light than
the human eye is able to collect on its own, focus it 5, and present the viewer with a brighter, clearer, and magnified virtual image 6.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Vision Diagram
An image is formed on the retina with light rays converging most at the cornea and upon entering and exiting the lens. Rays from the top and bottom of
the object are traced and produce an inverted real image on the retina. The distance to the object is drawn smaller than scale.

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OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Physics of the Eye. December 25, 2012." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42482/latest/ View on Boundless.com
Vision and Optical Instruments

Diagram of the Human Eye

The cornea and lens of an eye act together to form a real image on the light-sensing retina, which has its densest concentration of receptors in the fovea
and a blind spot over the optic nerve. The power of the lens of an eye is adjustable to provide an image on the retina for varying object distances. Layers
of tissues with varying indices of refraction in the lens are shown here. However, they have been omitted from other pictures for clarity.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Diagram of a Compound Microscope

This diagram shows the setup of mirrors that allow for the magnification of images.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass is a convex lens that lets the observer see a larger image of the object under observation.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Airy Disk
Computer-generated image of an Airy disk. The gray scale intensities have been adjusted to enhance the brightness of the outer rings of the Airy pattern.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Vision Diagram
An image is formed on the retina with light rays converging most at the cornea and upon entering and exiting the lens. Rays from the top and bottom of
the object are traced and produce an inverted real image on the retina. The distance to the object is drawn smaller than scale.

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OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Physics of the Eye. December 25, 2012." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42482/latest/ View on Boundless.com
Vision and Optical Instruments

Far Sighted Vision

This occurs when the image is formed behind the retina

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Schematic Diagram of the Human Eye

Structure of the eye and closeup of the retina.

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Wikibooks. "File:Schematic diagram of the human eye en.svg - Wikibooks, open books for an open world." CC BY-SA 3.0
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Vision and Optical Instruments

Visual Sensitivity
This graph shows the sensitivity of the eye to luminance (Y) and chrominance (U, V) components of images. The horizontal scale is spatial frequency,
and represents the frequency of an alternating pattern of parallel stripes with sinusoidally varying intensity. The vertical scale is the contrast sensitivity of
human vision, which is the ratio of the maximum visible range of intensities to the minimum discernible peak-to-peak intensity variation at the specified
frequency.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

X-Ray Radiography
Radiography of the knee in a modern X-ray machine.

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Vision and Optical Instruments

Attribution
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/destructive-interference
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/constructive-interference
• Wiktionary. "crystallography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/crystallography
• OpenStax CNX. "Wayne Lin and Andrew Barron, An Introduction to X-Ray Diffraction. September 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m38289/latest/
• Wiktionary. "shutter speed." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/shutter_speed
• Wikipedia. "Camera lens." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera_lens
• Wikipedia. "Camera." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera
• Wiktionary. "chromatic aberration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chromatic_aberration
• Wikipedia. "Compound microscope." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound_microscope%23Compound_microscope
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Microscopes. September 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42491/latest/
• Wiktionary. "pupil." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pupil
• Wiktionary. "aperture." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aperture
• Wikipedia. "Human eye." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Physics of the Eye. September 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m42482/latest/
• Wiktionary. "convex." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/convex
• Wiktionary. "lens." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lens
• Wiktionary. "diopter." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diopter

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• Wikipedia. "Magnifying glass." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnifying_glass

• Wiktionary. "spherical aberration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spherical_aberration
• Wiktionary. "chromatic aberration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chromatic_aberration
• Wiktionary. "achromatic." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/achromatic
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Telescopes. September 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42493/latest/
• Wikipedia. "Telescopes." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telescopes
• Wikipedia. "Refracting telescope." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refracting_telescope
• Wikipedia. "Catadioptric." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catadioptric%23Catadioptric_telescopes
• Wikipedia. "Reflecting telescope." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflecting_telescope
• Wiktionary. "nanostructure." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nanostructure
• Wiktionary. "diffraction." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diffraction
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• Wikipedia. "Diffraction limit." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction_limit
• Wiktionary. "hyperopia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hyperopia
• Wiktionary. "myopia." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/myopia
• Wikipedia. "Human eye." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Physics of the Eye. September 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0
http://cnx.org/content/m42482/latest/
• OpenStax CNX. "Free High School Science Texts Project, Geometrical Optics: The Human Eye (Grade 11). September 17,
2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m39031/latest/
• Wiktionary. "field of view." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/field_of_view

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• Wikipedia. "dynamic contrast ratio." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dynamic%20contrast%20ratio

• Wikipedia. "static contrast ratio." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/static%20contrast%20ratio
• Wikipedia. "Optics." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics
• Wikipedia. "Human eye." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye%23Dynamic_range
• Wiktionary. "distortion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/distortion
• Wiktionary. "aberration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aberration
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physics/definition/refraction
• OpenStax CNX. "OpenStax College, Aberrations. September 17, 2013." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42292/latest/
• Wikipedia. "Chromatic aberration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_aberration
• Wikipedia. "Distortion (optics)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion_(optics)
• Wikipedia. "Coma aberration." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coma_aberration
• Wiktionary. "superimposed." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/superimposed
• Wiktionary. "tomography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tomography
• Wikipedia. "radiography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/radiography
• Wikipedia. "Computed tomography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomography
• Wikipedia. "X-ray imaging." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_imaging
• Wikipedia. "Tomography." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomography
• Wiktionary. "contrast." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contrast
• Wikipedia. "Scanning electron microscope." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope

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• Wikipedia. "Microscopes." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscopes

• Wikipedia. "Optical microscope." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_microscope
• Wikipedia. "Transmission electron microscope." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscope
• Wikipedia. "Dark field." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_field
• Wikipedia. "luminance." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/luminance
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• Wikipedia. "Optics." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics

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