Atomic Structure

Prepared
By
Mr. Peter H. Mammba
Quantum Mechanical Concepts
of Atomic Structure
 What is an Atom?
 Matter is anything that take up space and has
mass.
 All matter are made up of atom.
 Atom are the building blocks of matter.
so, An atom 
is the smallest unit of matter that defines the
chemical elements.
The Ancient Greeks used to believe
that everything was made up of
very small particles. I did some
experiments in 1808 that proved
this and called these particles
ATOMS:

Dalton
 Atom…

 Atoms of an element are identical.

 Each element has different atoms.
 Atoms can engage in chemical
reactions.
 Atoms can neither be created no
destroyed.
 Atoms are indivisible.
 Atomic Theory

I. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

II.Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of an Atom

(Solar or Planetary Model of an Atom)

III.Bohr’s Atomic Model

IV.The Wave model

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

 In 1897, the English

scientist J.J. Thomson
provided the first hint
that an atom is made of
even smaller particles.
Thomson Model…
 He proposed a model of the
atom that is sometimes called
the “Plum Pudding” model.
 Atoms were made from a
positively charged substance
with negatively charged
electrons scattered about, like
raisins in a pudding.
 Thomson Model…

 Thomson studied the

passage of an electric
current through a gas.
 As the current passed
through the gas, it gave
off rays of negatively
charged particle.
 Thomson Model…
Where did
they come
 This surprised from?

Thomson, because
the atoms of the
gas were
uncharged. Where
had the negative
charges come
from?
Thomson concluded that the
negative charges came from within
the atom.

A particle smaller than an atom had

to exist.

The atom was divisible!

Thomson called the negatively
charged “corpuscles,” today known
as electrons.

Since the gas was known to be

neutral, having no charge, he
reasoned that there must be
positively charged particles in the
atom.

But he could never find them.

Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment
 In 1908, the English
physicist Ernest
Rutherford was hard
at work on an
experiment that
seemed to have little
to do with unraveling
the mysteries of the
atomic structure.
 Rutherford’s experiment Involved firing a
stream of tiny positively charged particles at
a thin sheet of gold foil (2000 atoms thick)
 Rutherford Model…
 Most of the positively
charged “bullets” passed
right through the gold
atoms in the sheet of gold
foil without changing
course at all.
 Some of the positively
charged “bullets,” however,
did bounce away from the
gold sheet as if they had hit
something solid. He knew
that positive charges repel
positive charges.
 Rutherford Models…
 This could only mean that the gold atoms in the
sheet were mostly open space. Atoms were not a
pudding filled with a positively charged material.
 Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small,
dense, positively charged center that repelled his
positively charged “bullets.”
 He called the center of the atom the “nucleus”
 The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a
whole.
Rutherford Model …

 Rutherford reasoned that all

of an atom’s positively
charged particles were
contained in the nucleus.
The negatively charged
particles were scattered
outside the nucleus around
the atom’s edge.
 Rutherford Model…
  
Let as look at classical dynamics of the hydrogen atom,
whose single electron makes it the simplest of all atoms.
We assume a circular electron orbit for convenience,
through it might as reasonably be assumed to be elliptical
in shape.

 The centripetal force:-

 Rutherford Model…
  
 Holding the electron in an orbit from the
nucleus is provided by the electric force
between them.
 Rutherford Model…
  
 The condition for the dynamic stable orbit
is:-

=
 Rutherford Model…

  
 The electron velocity v is therefore related
to its orbit radius r by the formula:-
 Success of Rutherford’s Atomic Model

  
On the Basis of the conclusions drawn from the
particle scattering experiment, Rutherford gave a
nuclear model of an atom. According to this model:
 Atoms has a positively charged central part (Nucleus).

 Electrons are distributed around nucleus.

 Success…
 Mass of an atom is concentrated at nucleus.

 Compared with total volume of an atom, the

volume of nucleus is meage.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in
circular path. In this way he provided the
stability of an atom.
 Draw back of Rutherford Model

I. Through Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism,

a charge that is accelerating radiates energy as
electromagnetic waves. The electron moving
around the nucleus is under constant acceleration
and therefore, is should constant lose energy. Due
to this factor, the electron in Rutherford model
would bound to spiral towards the nucleus and fall
into it.
Draw back…
 Draw back…
ii. If the electron continuously radiate light
radiations, its atomic spectrum should be
continuous
i.e.
It should not contain lines of specific frequency/
wavelength (line spectrum). Thus we see that
Rutherford’s model of the atom is also not able
to explain the atomic lines spectrum.
 Bohr’s Atomic Model

 In order to remove the drawbacks of

Rutherford’s model and to explain the origin
of the production of spectrum of hydrogen,
Neil Bohr put forward an atomic model
which is based on Plank’s quantum theory
of radiation.
 Bohr’s Atomic Model…
 He explained that features of Rutherford were
correct but its inability to explain the various
draw backs was due to the fact that he applied
classical mechanics.
 According to Bohr, the electron in an atom do
not emit radiation under all conditions. They do
so only under certain conditions as explained to
him in his model.
 Bohr’s Atomic Model…
 In 1913, the Danish
scientist Niels Bohr
proposed an
improvement. In his
model, he placed
each electron in a
specific energy
level.
Bohr Model…

 According to Bohr’s atomic

model, electrons move in
definite orbits around the
nucleus, much like planets
circle the sun. These orbits, or
energy levels, are located at
certain distances from the
nucleus.
 Bohr's Model of the Atom…
-electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit
the sun
 Bohr's Model of the Atom
Bohr's model:
-electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit
the sun
-each orbit can hold a specific maximum
number of electrons
 Bohr's Model of the Atom
Bohr's model:
-electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit
the sun
-each orbit can hold a specific maximum
number of electrons
orbit maximum #
electrons
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

Bohr's model:
-electrons orbit the nucleus like planets orbit
the sun
-each orbit can hold a specific maximum
number of electrons
-electrons fill orbits closest to the nucleus
first.
Eg.

MASS NUMBER (A) = number of protons (p) +

number of neutrons (n)

SYMBOL

Atomic Number = number of protons (p)

MASS NUMBER (A)= number of protons (p) +

number of neutrons (n)

SYMBOL

Atomic Number = number of protons (p)

(obviously)
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P =

#e- =

#N =
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = atomic #
=9
#e- =

#N =
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = # P
=9
#N =
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9

#N = atomic mass - # P
= 10
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10
draw the nucleus with
protons & neutrons
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10
how many electrons can
fit in the first orbit?
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10
how many electrons can
fit in the first orbit?
2
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10

how many electrons are left?

 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10

how many electrons are left? 7

how many electrons fit in the
second orbit?
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10

how many electrons are left? 7

how many electrons fit in the
second orbit? 8
 Bohr's Model of the Atom

e.g. fluorine:
#P = 9

#e- = 9 9P
10N
#N = 10
What are the 3 major parts of an atom?
An atom has three major parts which are:-

 Proton
 Neutron
 Electron
 The location of each part of
the atom.
Diagram of an Atom
 Proton (p)
 Protons are positively charged particles found
in the atomic nucleus. Protons were discovered
by Ernest Rutherford.
 Experiments done in the late 1960's and early
1970's showed that protons are made from
other particles called quarks. Protons are made
from two 'up' quarks and one 'down' quark.
 Neutron (n)
 Neutrons are uncharged particles found in the
atomic nucleus. Neutrons were discovered by
James Chadwick in 1932.
 Experiments done in the late 1960's and early
1970's showed that neutrons are made from
other particles called quarks. Neutrons are made
from one 'up' quark and two 'down' quarks.
 Electron (e)

Electrons are negatively charged particles

that surround the atom's nucleus. Electrons
were discovered by J. J. Thomson in 1897.

Electrons determine properties of the atom.

Chemical reactions involve sharing or
exchanging electrons.
 Nucleus
The nucleus is the central part of an
atom. It is composed of protons and
neutrons.
The nucleus contains most of an atom's
mass.
It was discovered by Ernest Rutherford
in 1911.
Nucleus…
 Atomic Number
 Is the number of protons (p) present in the
nucleus of the atom of the element.
or
Is the number of positive charges on the nucleus
of the atom of the element.

NB. Atomic number of an element is the

fundamental property of the element
(Mosley’s law)
 Mass Number (A)

Is the sum of the protons (p) and neutrons (n)

present in the nucleus.

i.e., A = p + n

Since protons (p) and neutrons (n) are collectively

called nucleons, the mass number (A) of an element
is equal to the total number of the nucleons present
in the nucleus of the atom of that element.
 Atomic Mass Unit (symbolized AMU or amu)

is defined as precisely 1/12 the mass of an atom

of carbon-12. The carbon-12 (C-12) atom has
six protons and six neutrons in its nucleus.
 Mass number (A) = (p + n) amu
How many protons, neutrons and electrons of each
element shown below?
 Success of Bohr’s Theory
 The Following are achievement of Bo’s atomic model:-

1. Explanation of the stability of an atom

 According to Bohr, the electron does not lose energy, as

long as it revolves in particular orbit.

 It can not jump from the first orbit to lower orbit, as there
is no orbit less than one. Thus gradual loss of energy by
the electron is not possible. Hence atom is stable
 Success of Bohr’s Theory…
  
2. How is the emission spectrum Produced?
 When element is heated, its electrons absorbs energy
and jump to higher energy levels. In the higher energy
levels, the electrons are unstable and hence jump back to
the lower energy levels within seconds in one or more
strides and in this process, they release energy.
 The energy, thus released, gives the emission of
spectrum.
 Success of Bohr’s Theory…
3. How is the absorption spectrum Produced?
 When electromagnetic radiation is passed through
the solution of a substance, some of its
wavelength are absorbed by the substance. The
wavelength absorbed are characteristics of that
substance and cause the excitation of its electrons.
 Success of Bohr’s Theory…

4. How is the emission spectrum of hydrogen produced?

 When an electric discharge is passed through hydrogen gas filled

in a discharge tube at a very low pressure, bluish glow is obtained.

 When this glow is analyzed by prism, a group of spectral lines is

obtained in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet region. This group

of spectral lines is called the emission spectrum of hydrogen. This
spectrum consists of several lines which can be grouped into five
series, called spectral series.
 spectral series
  
 These series where named after the names of
their discoverers as shown below;-

I. Lyman Series (discovered by Lyman in 1915)

which appears in the ultraviolet region of the
spectrum. The wavelength of different spectral
lines of this series (in ) are 912, 931, 938, 950, 973,
1026, 1216
 spectral series…
  
II. Balmer series (discovered by Balmer in
1835) which appears in the visible region.
The wavelength (in ) of different spectral
lines of this series are 3668, 3970, 4101,
4340, 4861, 6563.
 spectral series…
  
III. Paschen Series (discovered by Paschen in
1835) which appears in the near infrared region
and the wavelength, ( in of different spectral
lines of this series are 8207, 10050, 10938,
12818,18751.
 spectral series…
  
IV. Brachett series ( discovered by Brachett in
1922) which appears in the far infrared region
and the wavelength (in of different spectral
lines of the series are: 14590, 21660, 26280,
40570.
 spectral series…
  
V. Pfund series (discovered by Pfund in
1925) which appears in the far infra-red
region and the wavelength of different
spectral lines of this series are (in 22810,
56360, 74800.
lyman balmer paschen brackett
series
   Calculation of frequency (in S.I
  
unit
,,

- =

=- - =

On putting , and
   Calculation of wavelength (in S.I
unit meter (m)
  
 where c velocity =

= where = Rh

Rh
 Example
  
 Calculate the frequency, energy and wavelength
of the radiation corresponding to the spectral line
of the lowest frequency in lyman series in the
spectrum of H atom. Given that = , c = and h = .
 Solution
  
 From Rh but = 1 and = 2

Frequency (v) is given by:

where c velocity =

=
 Solution…

  
From equation;

Therefore

x
 Limitation of Bohr’s Theory
  
I. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the origin
of the spectral given by multi-electron
species.
 It only explains the origin of the spectrum
given by one-electron species like H,
 Limitation of Bohr’s Theory…

II. According to Bohr, circular orbits, in

which the electrons revolve, are planar.
 Modern research has shown that an
electron moves round the nucleus in the
three dimensional space (x, y, Z axes).
 Limitation of Bohr’s Theory…
III. No explanation for Zeeman and Stark
effects.
 It has been observed that when an excited atom, which gives a
line emission spectrum, is put in magnetic field, its spectral lines
are father split up into still thinner (i.e., closely- spaced) lines.
This type of splitting of the spectral lines into a number of
thinner lines is also observed when the excited atom is placed in
an electric field. This type of splitting is called Stark effect.
 Limitation of Bohr’s Theory…
IV. Dual nature of electron and Heisenberg’s
uncertainty principle.
 We have seen that Bohr had assumed that an electron
behaves as a material particle of small mass moving
round the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. But de
Broglie suggested that an electron has a dual nature,
i.e., an electron, like light, behaves both as a material
particle and as wave.
 Limitation of Bohr’s Theory…

V. No explanation for fine structure.

 When a certain single line in the spectrum is seen with the help

of a powerful microscope, it is found to split into a number of

closely- spaced lines. Bohr’s theory has no explanation for the
spiting of a single line, since, according to Bohr, one and only
one spectral line is produced when an electron jumps from one
orbit to the other. The spectrum consisting of closely-spaced
lines is called fine structure or multiple structure.
 Atomic structure…

 One of the major way used to present the

atomic structure of an element or
compound is Electronic configuration.
 Electronic Configuration

 The distribution of electrons in various

shells, sub-shells and orbitals, in an atom
of an element, is called Complete
electronic configuration or simply
electronic configuration.
 To indicate the electronic configuration of
the atom, that is to say, where the electrons
reside, we use the following notation.

Main potential energy level n, or shell

Number of electrons occupying the orbital

Energy sublevel l, or type of orbital

 Maximum Number of Electrons
Maximum Number of Electrons In Each Sublevel

In Each Sublevel
Maximum Number
Sublevel Number of Orbitals of Electrons

s 1 2

p 3 6

d 5 10

f 7 14

LeMay Jr, Beall, Robblee, Brower, Chemistry Connections to Our Changing World , 1996, page 146
H = 1s1
1s

He = 1s2
1s

Li = 1s2 2s1
1s 2s

Be = 1s2 2s2
1s 2s

C = 1s2 2s2 2p2

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

S = 1s2 2s2 2p4

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz
 Filling Rules for Electron Orbitals

Aufbau Principle: Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest energy
orbitals available until all the electrons of the atom have been accounted for. Or
the orbitals are filled up with electrons in the increasing order of their energy.

Pauli Exclusion Principle: An orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons.

To occupy the same orbital, two electrons must spin in opposite
directions.

Hund’s Rule: Electrons occupy equal-energy orbitals so that a maximum

number of unpaired electrons results.

*Aufbau is German for “building up”

Electron Configurations
Orbital Filling
Electron
Element 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s Configuration

H 1s1

He 1s2

Li 1s22s1

C 1s22s22p2

N 1s22s22p3

O 1s22s22p4

F 1s22s22p5

Ne 1s22s22p6

Na 1s22s22p63s1
Order in which subshells are filled
with electrons
1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 2 2 6 2 6 2 10
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d …
6 2 10
Wave Model
The Wave Model….
 Today’s atomic model is
based on the principles of
wave mechanics.
 According to the theory of
wave mechanics, electrons
do not move about an
atom in a definite path,
like the planets around the
sun.
 The Wave Model…

 In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact location

of an electron. The probable location of an electron is
based on how much energy the electron has.
 According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a
small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a large
region in which there are enough electrons to make an
atom neutral.
 Electron Cloud:
 A space in which
electrons are likely to be
found.
 Electrons whirl about the
nucleus billions of times
in one second
 They are not moving
around in random
patterns.
 Location of electrons
depends upon how much
energy the electron has.
 Electron Cloud:

 Depending on their energy they are locked

into a certain area in the cloud.
 Electrons with the lowest energy are
found in the energy level closest to the
nucleus
 Electrons with the highest energy are
found in the outermost energy levels,
farther from the nucleus.
 Indivisibl Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
e Cloud
Greek X
Dalton X
Thomson X
Rutherford X X
Bohr X X X
Wave X X X