MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS

Third Edition
ANDREW S. TANENBAUM

Case Study 1: LINUX

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 HISTORY of Unix (1)
• MULTICS (M.I.T., Bell Labs, & GE)
– MULTiplexed Information and Computing Service
• Bell Labs pulls out and Ken Thompson looks for something to do
– Writes a stripped down version of MULTICS by himself for a PDP-7.
• Brian Kernighan names it UNICS
– UNiplexed Information and Computing Service
• Dennis Ritchie joins the effort and UNIX is ported to PDP-11/45 and
PDP-11/70 (dominate minicomputers of 1970’s)
• UNIX is rewritten in high-level language
– B was simplified version of BCPL (Basic CPL), a descendent of CPL (Combined
Programming Language). (Alternate version: B was derived from Bon an earlier
language that Thompson wrote which, in turn, was named after his wife, Bonnie.)
– Dennis Ritchie designed a successor to B and named it C.

2
 HISTORY of Unix (2)
• AT&T (owner of Bell Labs) distributes UNIX
to universities for a modest fee.
• University of California at Berkeley ports
UNIX to the VAX (4BSD) and implements
virtual memory, long filenames, a better file
system, the network protocol TCP/IP, a new
editor (vi), a new shell (csh), and new
compilers (Pascal & Lisp).
• In 1987, Andrew Tanenbaum releases a
new stripped-down version called MINIX
that could be used by O.S. classes.
• In 1991, Finnish student, Linus Torvalds,
added features to MINIX and releases a full-
blown UNIX clone named Linux.

3
 Unix / Linux Goals
– Designed by programmers for programmers
“What they want is a servant, not a nanny.”
– Simple, elegant, and consistent design
“Principle of least surprise”
– Power and Flexibility
Commands should do just one thing and do it well
– Avoid useless redundancy
use cp instead of copy

4
 Interfaces to Linux

Figure 10-1. The layers in a Linux system.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 UNIX Shells

• sh (Bourne shell): The earliest major UNIX shell was written by

Steve Bourne in 1979.
• csh (C shell): Written by Bill Joy as a part of the Berkeley project.
Adds C-like operators, and command-line recall.
• ksh (Korn shell): Combines features of sh and csh as well as some
new features. Written by David Korn in 1986.
• bash (Bourne-again shell): Developed as part of the GNU project.
It is a POSIX-conforming shell that includes some of the best
features of csh and ksh as well as adding some of its own. This is
the default shell used by TAZ.
 Linux Utility Programs (1)

Categories of utility programs:

• File and directory manipulation commands.

• Filters.
• Program development tools, such as editors and
compilers.
• Text processing.
• System administration.
• Miscellaneous.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Linux Utility Programs (2)

Figure 10-2. A few of the common Linux

utility programs required by POSIX.
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 Kernel Structure

Figure 10-3. Structure of the Linux kernel

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 Processes in Linux

Figure 10-4. Process creation in Linux.

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 Signals in Linux (1)

Figure 10-5. The signals required by POSIX.

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 Process Management
System Calls in Linux

Figure 10-6. Some system calls relating to processes.

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 A Simple Linux Shell

Figure 10-7. A highly simplified shell.

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 Process Zombie States
• When a child process exits, it sends a message to its parent containing its exit
status.
• If the parent isn’t waiting for this message (or if the parent is no longer present),
the child enters the zombie state.

14
Implementation of Processes and Threads
Categories of information in the process descriptor:
• Scheduling parameters
• Memory image
• Signals
• Machine registers
System call state
• File descriptor table
• Accounting
• Kernel stack
• Miscellaneous

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 Implementation of Exec

Figure 10-8. The steps in executing the command

ls typed to the shell.
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 The Clone System Call

Figure 10-9. Bits in the sharing_flags bitmap.

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 Scheduling in Linux (1)

Three classes of threads for scheduling purposes:

• Real-time FIFO. (Priorities 0 – 99; non-preemptive)

• Real-time round robin. (Priorities 0 – 99; preemptive)
• Timesharing. (priorites 100 – 139)

Note: Highest priority = 0

Lowest priority = 140

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Scheduling in Linux (2)

Figure 10-10. Illustration of Linux runqueue and priority arrays.

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 Booting Linux

Figure 10-11. The sequence of processes used to

boot some Linux systems.
Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Memory Management in Linux (1)

Figure 10-12. (a) Process A’s virtual address space. (b) Physical
memory. (c) Process B’s virtual address space.
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Memory Management in Linux (2)

Figure 10-13. Two processes can share a mapped file.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Memory Management
System Calls in Linux

Figure 10-14. Some system calls relating to memory

management.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Physical Memory Management (1)

Linux distinguishes between three memory zones:

• ZONE_DMA - pages that can be used for DMA

operations.
• ZONE_NORMAL - normal, regularly mapped pages.
• ZONE_HIGHMEM - pages with high-memory
addresses, which are not permanently mapped.

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Physical Memory Management (2)

Figure 10-15. Linux main memory representation.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
Physical Memory Management (3)

Figure 10-16. Linux uses four-level page tables.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
Memory Allocation Mechanisms

Figure 10-17. Operation of the buddy algorithm.

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The Page Replacement Algorithm

Figure 10-18. Page states considered in the page

frame replacement algorithm.
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 Networking (1)

Figure 10-19. The uses of sockets for networking.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Networking (2)

Types of networking:

• Reliable connection-oriented byte stream.

• Reliable connection-oriented packet stream.
• Unreliable packet transmission.

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 Input/Output System Calls in Linux

Figure 10-20. The main POSIX calls for managing the terminal.

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 The Major Device Table

Figure 10-21. Some of the file operations supported

for typical character devices.
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 Implementation of
Input/Output in Linux (2)

Figure 10-22. The Linux I/O system showing one file system
in detail.
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 The Linux File System (1)

Figure 10-23. Some important directories

found in most Linux systems.
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 The Linux File System (2)

Figure 10-24. (a) Before linking. (b) After linking.

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 The Linux File System (3)

Figure 10-25. (a) Separate file systems. (b) After mounting.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 The Linux File System (4)

Figure 10-26. (a) A file with one lock.

(b) Addition of a second lock. (c) A third lock.
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File System Calls in Linux (1)

Figure 10-27. System calls relating to files.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 File System Calls in Linux (2)

Figure 10-28. The fields returned by the stat system call.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 File System Calls in Linux (3)

Figure 10-29. System calls relating to directories.

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 The Linux Virtual File System

Figure 10-30. File system abstractions supported by the VFS.

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 The Linux Ext2 File System (1)

Figure 10-31. Disk layout of the Linux ext2 file system.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 The Linux Ext2 File System (2)

Figure 10-32. (a) A Linux directory with three files. (b) The same
directory after the file voluminous has been removed.
Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 The Linux Ext2 File System (3)

Figure 10-33. Some fields in the i-node structure in Linux

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 The Linux Ext2 File System (4)

Figure 10-34. The relation between the file descriptor table, the
open file description table, and the i-node table.
Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 NFS Protocols

Figure 10-35. Examples of remote mounted file systems.

Directories shown as squares, files shown as circles.
Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 NFS Implementation

Figure 10-36. The NFS layer structure

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
 Security In Linux

Figure 10-37. Some example file protection modes.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639
Security System Calls in Linux

Figure 10-38. system calls relating to security.

Tanenbaum, Modern Operating Systems 3 e, (c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved. 0-13-6006639