UKAI 2063

Accounting
Information Systems II
Lecture 6
Logical Model –
Process Modeling (DFD)

6- 1
 Lecture 6 Outline
■Systems analysis: process modeling

■Data flow diagram (DFD): process, data flow,

external entity and data store

6- 2
Process modeling
■Process modeling is a technique for organizing and
documenting structure and flow of data through
system processes, and/or the logic, policies, and
procedures to be implemented by system processes.
是一种技术，用于通过系统流程和 /或系统流程要实现的逻
辑，策略和过程来组织和记录数据的结构和流程。

6- 3
What is a process?
■A "Process" can be defined as a “set of interrelated
or interacting activities, which transforms inputs into
outputs". These activities require allocation of
resources such as people and materials.

6- 4
■The performance of an organization can be
improved through the use of the process approach.
The processes are managed as a system, by
creating and understanding a network of the
processes and their interactions.

6- 5
6- 6
6- 7
Data flow diagram (DFD)
■A data flow diagram illustrates the movement of
data between external entities, processes and data
stores within a system.

■The technique is used to define the scope of the

system and ensure that the analysts have a clear
understanding of the user’s problems and
requirements.

■The technique is used to build a model of the

information flows and not to define the detail of the
processing performed by the system.
6- 8
A highly simplified DFD – ATM withdrawal

6- 9
Components of a DFD

■External entities

■Processes

■Data flows

■Data stores

6- 10
Notations of DFDs

6- 11
External entities
■An external entity defines a person, organization
unit, or other organization that lies outside of the
scope of the system being studied, and yet it
interacts with the system.

■External entity provides data to the system or

receives data from the system or both.

■The name, most often a noun, given to an external

entity must indicate who or what sends data to the
system or receives data from the system or both.

6- 12
■External entity defines the “boundary” or scope of a
system being modeled, e.g.

■Office, department, division inside the business but outside

the system scope.

■An external organization or agency.

■Another business or another information system.

■One of your system’s end-users or managers.

6- 13
Processes
■The name given to a process must indicate what
happens to produce output.

■Some form of processing, e.g.

■Perform computations
■Make decisions
■Sort, filter, and summarize data
■Organize data into useful information
■Trigger other processes
■Use stored data

■Use a verb and noun combination, e.g. calculate

student grade. Avoid meaningless names, e.g. process
student data.
6- 14
Data flows
■A data flow represents an input or output.

■A data flow may also be used to represent the creation,

reading, deletion, or updating of data in a file or
database (called a data store).

■Data flows can represent a single data item, e.g.

student name or a number of data items, e.g. student
details.

■Use a noun or noun and adjective combination, e.g.

verified student name.
6- 15
Data stores
■A data store is an inventory of data.

■Frequently implemented as a file or database.

■A data store is “data at rest” compared to a data flow

that is “data in motion”.

■The name given to a data store must reflect the type

of data that is stored.

■Use a noun, e.g. subject. Only in a physical DFD

may the data store name also include the type of
storage, e.g. student file.
6- 16
Creating a Set of DFDs

•Create a graphical model of the information

system based on your fact-finding results
•Three-step process
Step 1: Draw a context diagram
Step 2: Draw a diagram 0 DFD
Step 3: Draw the lower-level diagrams (Level n)

6- 17
Relationship
among DFD
levels

6- 18
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Guidelines for Drawing DFDs

• Draw the context diagram so that it fits on one
page
• Use the name of the information system as the
process name in the context diagram
• Use unique names within each set of symbols

19
6- 19
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Guidelines for Drawing DFDs

• Do not cross lines
• Provide a unique name and reference number for
each process
• Obtain as much user input and feedback as
possible

20
6- 20
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Step 1: Draw a Context Diagram

21
6- 21
Context diagram
■A data flow diagram (DFD) of an organizational
system that shows the system boundaries - external
entities that interact with the system and the major
information flows between the entities and the
system.

6- 22
A context diagram example

6- 23
Another context diagram example

6- 24
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Step 2: Draw a Diagram 0 DFD

25
6- 25
Level-0 diagram
■A data flow diagram (DFD) that represents a
system’s major processes, data flows and data stores
at a high level of detail.

6- 26
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Step 2: Draw a Diagram 0 DFD

• If same data flows in both directions, you can use a double-headed arrow
• Diagram 0 is an exploded view of process 0
• Parent diagram
• Child diagram
• Functional primitive

27
6- 27
A level-0
DFD
example

6- 28
Another
level-0
DFD
example

6- 29
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Step 3: Draw the Lower-Level

Diagrams
• Must use leveling and balancing
techniques
• Leveling examples
• Uses a series of increasingly detailed
DFDs to describe an information
system
• Exploding, partitioning, or
decomposing

30
6- 30
Creating a Set of DFDs

• Step 3: Draw the Lower-Level

Diagrams
• Balancing
• Ensures that the input and output
data flows of the parent DFD are
maintained on the child DFD

31
6- 31
A level-1
DFD
example

6- 32
6- 33
Steps to construct DFDs
(Example)

6- 34
A scenario
After purchase requests are received from other
departments to buy goods, the purchasing department
will send request for quotations to suppliers. For a
fixed period, suppliers will be sending in bids. When
all bids are received, a purchasing decision is then
made. A purchase order will be prepared, a copy of
which is sent to the supplier and a copy retained. When
goods are delivered by the suppliers, the items received
are checked against the purchase order. The delivery
order is filed after noting any discrepancies. When the
invoice is received from the supplier, it is checked
against the delivery order, payment is then made and the
invoice is filed.
6- 35
First, draw a context diagram
■To create a context diagram, start with a single process that
represents the entire system. In this case and only this case,
the process is named after the system, rather than the function
performed by the process. Draw a process with the number
zero.

6- 36
Then identify the external entities.

6- 37
Start with one of the external entities and draw the
data flows from that external entity to the system
and the data flows from the system to that external
entity.

6- 38
Continue with the data flows for each remaining
external entity until the context diagram is
completed.

6- 39
Next, draw a level-0 DFD
From the context diagram, select an external entity and a
data flow from that external entity to process 0. Draw the
external entity and associate the data flow to the relevant
process. Start with process 1.

6- 40
The data flow into a process determines the data
coming out of that process, as a result of the
transformation that occurs within the process. Data
flows back to the external entity or into a data store or
into another process are drawn as appropriate.
Continue with process 2.

6- 41
Just like the LEGO building blocks you enjoyed so
much when you were a child, the trick here is to put the
pieces together logically, i.e. processes, data stores, data
flows and external entities. Continue with process 3.

6- 42
Continue with process 4.

6- 43
Continue with process 5.

6- 44
Rules to follow for drawing each component
■Process rules
■Processes must have both inputs and outputs and they must
differ, that is some transformation must occur to the inputs to
produce the outputs.

■Every input should have a corresponding output (or outputs).

■Every output should have a corresponding input (or inputs).

■Processes can communicate directly.

6- 45
■Processes should be named using strong, active
verbs and objects to stress the basic data
transformation.

■Some common errors:

■Black hole: has inputs but no outputs.

■Miracle/Spontaneous: has outputs but no inputs.

■Gray hole: the inputs are insufficient to produce the

output. Eg. A DOB input is not sufficient to produce a
final grade output in the CALCULATE GRADE process.

6- 46
■Data store rules
■A data flow going into a data store must come from a
process and a data flow coming out of a data store must go
into a process.

■A data flow going into a data store must update data - not
simply be the key for obtaining data from the data store.

■Data stores are not represented on a DFD when all of their

data flows go into and/or come from a single process. The
exception is the lowest level DFD. Context diagram will not
have Data Stores shown.

■Data stores cannot communicate directly, only via

processes.
6- 48
■External entity rules
■A data flow going to an external entity must come from
a process and a data flow coming from an external entity
must go into a process.

■Communication between external entities should not be

shown on a data flow diagram, although such
communication may exist, it is outside the scope of the
system under consideration and is therefore not
important.

6- 49
■Data flow rules
■A data flow has only one direction of flow between two
objects on a DFD.

■A data flow cannot connect to the same object from

which it originates. (2 same data flows from and to the
same process/entity/data store)

■Data can only be input into data stores via a process.

■Data can only be output from data stores via a process.

■Data flows and data stores should receive names that

describe the composition of the data involved.

6- 50
6- 51
Additional examples

6- 52
Draw the DFD for a distance education university. The
enrolment process works as follows:
Students send in an application form containing their
personal details, and their desired course
The university checks that the course is available and
that the student has necessary academic
qualifications.
If the course is available the student is enrolled in the
course, and the university confirms the enrolment by
sending a confirmation letter to the student.
If the course is unavailable the student is sent a
rejection letter.

6- 53
• A student (EE) sends in an application form (DF) containing
their personal details, and their desired course
• The university checks (P) that the course is available.
• If the course is available the student is enrolled (P) in the
course, and the university confirms (P) the enrolment by
sending a confirmation letter (DF) that they are registered for
the course to the student.
• Or if the course is unavailable the student is sent a rejection
letter (DF).
• Note: The university, or more specifically the administration
section, is the system being modelled, it is not an EE.

6- 54
 Acknowledgements
This PowerPoint presentation contains
materials complied from various sources.
Credits are hereby given to their respective
owners. Please refer to the reading list for
details.

Reminder
The lecture slides serve only as a quick
learning guide. Students are required to refer
to the main textbook for detailed elaboration.

6- 55