Cambridge Biology iGCSE

Unit 13 – Coordination and Response

13 - Coordination and response
13.1 Nervous control in humans
Core
 Describe a nerve impulse as an electrical signal that passes along nerve cells called neurones
 Describe the human nervous system in terms of:
 the central nervous system consisting of brain and spinal cord
 the peripheral nervous system
 coordination and regulation of body functions
 Identify motor (effector), relay (connector) and sensory neurones from diagrams
 Describe a simple reflex are in terms of receptor, sensory neurone, relay neurone, motor neurones
and effector
 Describe a reflex action as a means of automatically and rapidly integrating and coordinating stimuli
with the responses of effectors (muscles and glands)
 Define a synapse as a junction between two Neurones
Supplement
 Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary actions
 Describe the structure of a synapse, including the presence of neurotransmitter containing vesicles,
the synaptic cleft and neurotransmitter receptor molecules
 Describe how an impulse triggers the release of a neurotransmitter from vesicles into the synaptic
gap and how the neurotransmitter diffuses across to bind with receptor molecules, in the membrane
of the neurone after the synaptic gap, causing the impulse to continue
 State that in a reflex arc the synapses ensure that impulses travel in one direction only
 State that many drugs, e.g. heroin, act upon synapses
13 - Coordination and response
13.2 Sense organs
Core
 Define sense organs as groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound, touch,
temperature and chemicals
 Identify the structures of the eye, limited to cornea, iris, pupil, lens, retina, optic nerve and blind
spot
 Describe the function of each part of the eye, limited to:
 cornea – refracts light
 iris – controls how much light enters pupil
 lens – focuses light onto retina
 retina – contains light receptors, some sensitive to light of different colours
 optic nerve – carries impulses to the brain
 Explain the pupil reflex in terms of light intensity and pupil diameter only
Supplement
 Explain the pupil reflex in terms of light intensity and antagonistic action of circular and radial
muscles in the iris
 Explain accommodation to view near and distant objects in terms of the contraction and relaxation
of the ciliary muscles, tension in the suspensory ligaments, shape of the lens and refraction of light
 State the distribution of rods and cones in the retina of a human
 Outline the function of rods and cones, limited to greater sensitivity of rods for night vision and
three different kinds of cones absorbing light of different colours for colour vision
 Identify the position of the fovea
13 - Coordination and response
13.3 Hormones in humans
Core
 Define a hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the
blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs
 Identify specific endocrine glands and their secretions, limited to adrenal glands
and adrenaline, pancreas and insulin, testes and testosterone and ovaries and
oestrogen
 Describe adrenaline as the hormone secreted in ‘fight or flight’ situations and its
effects, limited to increased breathing and pulse rate and widened pupils
 Give examples of situations in which adrenaline secretion increases
 State the functions of insulin, oestrogen and Testosterone
Supplement
 Discuss the role of the hormone adrenaline in the chemical control of metabolic
activity, including increasing the blood glucose concentration and pulse rate
 Compare nervous and hormonal control systems in terms of speed and longevity
of action
13 - Coordination and response
13.4 Homeostasis
Core
 Define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment
 Name and identify on a diagram of the skin: hairs, hair erector muscles, sweat
glands, receptors, sensory neurones, blood vessels and fatty tissue
 Describe the maintenance of a constant internal body temperature in humans in
terms of insulation, sweating, shivering and the role of the brain (limited to blood
temperature receptors and coordination)
Supplement
 Explain that homeostasis is the control of internal conditions within set limits
 Explain the concept of control by negative feedback
 Describe the control of the glucose concentration of the blood by the liver and the
roles of insulin and glucagon from the pancreas
 Outline the symptoms and treatment of Type 1 diabetes (detail of β cells is not
required)
 Describe the maintenance of a constant internal body temperature in humans in
terms of vasodilation and vasoconstriction of arterioles supplying skin surface
capillaries
13 - Coordination and response

13.5 Tropic responses

Core
 Define gravitropism as a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or
away from
 gravity
 Define phototropism as a response in which parts of a plant grow towards or
away from the direction from which light is coming
 Investigate gravitropism and phototropism in shoots and roots
Supplement
 Explain phototropism and gravitropism of a shoot as examples of the chemical
control of plant growth
 Explain the role of auxin in controlling shoot growth, limited to:
 auxin made in shoot tip (only)
 auxin spreads through the plant from the shoot tip
 auxin is unequally distributed in response to light and gravity
 auxin stimulates cell elongation
 Describe the use in weed-killers of the synthetic plant hormone 2,4-D
1 - Characteristics and classification of living organisms

In this chapter, you will find out about:

 neurones and how they work

 reflex actions
 synapses
 the structure and function of the eye
 hormones, including adrenaline,
insulin, oestrogen and testosterone
 how plants respond to stimuli
13 - Coordination and response
Reaction times
 Having a fast reaction time is important in many sports, but in a short sprint event it could make
the difference between a gold medal and a silver one.
 Sprint races are started with a gun. Because sound takes time to travel, it would not be fair for the
carter to stand at one end of the starting line and simply fire the gun - the sound would take longer
to reach the runner furthest away from him, so they would be at a significant disadvantage.
Instead, the firing of the gun is silent, and is transmitted as an electrical signal along wires (which
you can see in Figure 13.1) to individual speakers in each runner’s starting blocks. Each runner
should hear the sound of the gun at exactly the same moment.
 In the 100 m final in the 2012 Olympics, Usain Bolts reaction time between hearing the gun and
pushing off from his blocks was 0.165s. He won gold. The athletes who won silver and bronze
medals - Yohan Blake and Justin Gatlin
- had reaction times of 0.179 and 0.178s respectively.
However, these were not the fastest reaction times in
that race; the fastest of all was that of Churandy
Martina, which was only 0.139s.
 Most people’s reaction times are longer than this,
often around 0.2s or more. Sprinters whose ‘reaction
time’ is measured at less than 0.1s are judged to
have pushed off before the gun was fired - and Figure 13.1 - Starting blocks have sensors that
disqualified. measure the time between the sound of the
gun and the :of the runner’s feet against the
block.
13.1 - Coordination In Animals

 Changes in an organism’s environment are

called stimuli (singular: stimulus) and are
sensed by specialised cells called receptors.
The organism responds using effectors.
Muscles are effectors, and may respond to a
stimulus by contracting.
 Glands can also be effectors. For example, if
you smell good food cooking, your salivary
glands may respond by secreting saliva.
 Animals need fast and efficient
communication systems between their
receptors and effectors. This is partly
because most animals move in search of
food.
 Many animals need to be able to respond ▲Figure 13.2 – A Human
very quickly to catch their food, or to avoid Motor Neuronez
predators.
Human Motor Neurone
13.1 - Coordination In Animals

 To make sure that the right effectors respond at

the right time, there needs to be some kind of
communication system between receptors and
effectors. If you touch something hot, pain
receptors on your fingertips send an impulse to
your arm muscles to tell them to contract, pulling
your hand away from the hot surface. The way in
which receptors pick up stimuli, and then pass
information on to effectors, is called
coordination.
 Most animals have two methods of sending
information from receptors to effectors. The
fastest is by means of nerves. The receptors and
nerves make up the animal’s nervous system. A ▲Figure 13.2 – A Human
slower method, but still a very important one, is Motor Neurone
by means of chemicals called hormones.
Hormones are part of the endocrine system.
Human Motor Neurone
13.2 – The Human Nervous System
 The human nervous system is made of special cells
called neurones. Figure 13.2 illustrates a particular
type of neurone called a motor neurone.
 Neurones contain the same basic parts as any animal
cell. Each has a nucleus, cytoplasm, and a cell
membrane. However, their structure is specially
adapted to be able to carry messages very quickly.
 To enable them to do this, they have long, thin fibres
of cytoplasm stretching out from the cell body. The
longest fibre in Figure 13.2 is called an axon. Axons
can be more than a metre long. The shorter fibres are
called dendrons or dendrites.
 The dendrites pick up electrical signals from other
neurones lying nearby. These signals are called nerve
impulses. The signal passes to the cell body, then ▲Figure 13.2 – A Human
along the axon, which might pass it to another
Motor Neurone
neurone.

Human Motor Neurone

13.2 – The Human Nervous System
The central nervous system
 All mammals (and many other animals) have a
central nervous system (CNS) and a peripheral
nervous system. The CNS is made up of the
brain and spinal cord (Figure 13.3). The
peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves
and receptors.
 Like the rest of the nervous system, the CNS is
made up of neurones. Its role is to coordinate
the messages travelling through the nervous
system.
 When a receptor detects a stimulus, it sends an
electrical impulse to the brain or spinal cord.
The train or spinal cord receives the impulse,
and sends an impulse on, along the appropriate ▲Figure 13.03 – The
nerve fibres, to the expropriate effector. Human Central Nervous
System
13.2 – The Human Nervous System
Reflex arcs
 Figures 13.4 and 13.5 show how these impulses are sent. If your hand touches
a hot plate, an impulse is picked up by a sensory receptor in your finger. It
travels to the spinal cord along the axon from the receptor cell. This cell is
called a sensory neurone, because it is carrying an impulse from a sensory
receptor (Figure 13.6).
 In the spinal cord, the
neurone passes an impulse
on to several other
neurones. Only one is shown
in Figure 13.4. These
neurones are called relay
neurones, because they
relay the impulse on to
other neurones.

► Figure 13.04 – A Reflex Arc

13.2 – The Human Nervous System
Reflex arcs
 The relay neurones pass the impulse on to
the brain. They also pass it on to an effector.
 In this case, the effectors are the muscles in
your arm. The impulse travels to the muscle
along the axon of a motor neurone. The
muscle then contracts, so that your hand is
pulled away.
 This sort of reaction is called a reflex action.
You do not need to think about it. Your brain
is made aware of it, but you only consciously
realise what is happening after the message
▲Figure 13.05 – Schematic
has been sent on to your muscles.
Diagram of a Reflex Arc

 Reflex actions are very useful, because the message gets from the receptor to the
effector as quickly as possible. You do not waste time in thinking about what to do.
13.2 – The Human Nervous System

▲Figure 13.6 – The structure of Sensory, Motor and Relay (Inter) Neurones
13.2 – The Human Nervous System
Reflex arcs
 The pathway along which the nerve
impulse passes - the sensory neurone, relay
neurones and motor neurone - is called a
reflex arc. Figure 13.6 shows the structure
of these three types of neurone.
 Figure 13.7 shows a persons reflex actions
being tested - you may have had this test
yourself. Another reflex action is described
on page 168.
 Reflex actions are examples of involuntary
▲Figure 13.7 - The knee jerk reflex is
actions. They are not under conscious an example of a reflex action. A sharp tap
control. Many of our actions, however, are just below the knee stimulates a receptor.
voluntary. They happen because we decide This sends impulses along a sensory
to carry them out. For example, reading neurone into the spinal cord. The impulse
then travels along a motor neurone to the
this book is a voluntary action. thigh muscle, which quickly contracts and
raises the lower leg.
13.2 – The Human Nervous System
13.1 Give two examples of effectors. Q
13.2 What are the two main communication systems in an
animal’s body?
13.3 List three ways in which neurones are similar to other cells.
13.4 List three ways in which neurones are specialised to carry out
their function of transmitting electrical impulses very quickly.
13.5 What is the function of the central nervous system?
13.6 Where are the cell bodies of each of these types of neurone
found: a sensory neurone,
b relay neurone, and c motor neurone?
13.7
13.8
What is the value of reflex actions?
Describe two reflex actions, other than the ones described
?
on pages 164 and 168.
13.2 – The Human Nervous System
Synapses
 If you look carefully at Figure 13.5, you will
see that the three neurones involved in the
reflex arc to not quite connect with each
other. There is a small gap between each pair.
These gaps are called synaptic clefts. The
ends of the two neurones on either side of
the cleft, plus the cleft itself, is called a
synapse.
 Figure 13.8 shows a synapse between a
sensory neurone and a relay neurone in more
detail. Inside the sensory neurone’s axon are ▲Figure 13.8 – A Synapse
hundreds of tiny vacuoles, or vesicles.

 These each contain a chemical, called a transmitter substance or

neurotransmitter. When an impulse arrives along the axon of the sensory
neurone, it causes these vesicles to move to the cell
Synapse
membrane and empty their contents into the synaptic cleft.
13.2 – The Human Nervous System
Synapses
 The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across
the tiny gap, and attaches to receptor
molecules r. the cell membrane of the relay
neurone. This can happen because the shape of
the neurotransmitter molecules is
complementary to the shape of the receptor
molecules.
 The binding of the neurotransmitter with the
receptors triggers a nerve impulse in the relay
neurone, this impulse sweeps along the relay
neurone, until it reaches the next synapse.
▲Figure 13.8 – A Synapse
 Here, a similar process occurs transmit the impulse to the motor neurone.
 Synapses act like one-way valves. There is only neurotransmitter on one side of
the synapse, so the impulses can only go across from that side. Synapses ensure
that nerve impulses only travel
in one direction. Synapse
13.3 - Receptors
Sense organs
 The parts of an organism’s body that detect
stimuli, the receptors, may be specialised cells
or just the endings of sensory neurones. In
animals, the receptors are often part of a sense
organ (Figure 13.9). Your eye, for example, is a
sense organ, and the rod and cone cells in the
retina are receptors. They are sensitive to light.

Key Definition Figure 13.9 - Sense organs.

sense organs - groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound,
touch, temperature and chemicals synapse - a junction between two nerve cells,
consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter
13.3 – Receptors - Eyes
The structure of the eye
 Figure shows the internal structure of the eye.
 The part of the eye that contains the receptor cells is the retina. This is the
part which is actually sensitive to light. The rest of the eye simply helps to
protect the retina, or to focus light onto it.
 Each eye is set in a bony socket in the skull, called the orbit. Only the very
front of the eye is not surrounded by bone (Figure 13.11).
 The front of the eye is covered by a thin, transparent membrane called the
conjunctiva,
which helps to protect the
parts behind it. The
conjunctiva is always kept
moist by a fluid made in
the tear glands. This fluid
contains an enzyme
called lysozyme, which
can kill bacteria.
13.3 – Receptors - Eyes
The structure of the eye
 The fluid is washed across your eye by your eyelids
when you blink. The eyelids, eyebrows and eyelashes
also help to stop dirt from landing on the surface of
your eyes.
 Even the part of the eye inside the orbit is protected.
There is
a very tough coat
surrounding it
called the sclera.
13.3 – Receptors - Retina
The retina
 The retina is at the back of the eye. When light falls on a receptor cell in the
retina, the cell sends an electrical impulse along the optic nerve to the brain. The
brain sorts out all the impulses from each receptor cell, and builds up an image.
Some of these receptor cells are sensitive to light of different colours, enabling us
to see coloured images.
 The closer together the receptor cells are, the clearer the image the brain will get.
The part of the retina where Activity 13.3 A
the receptor cells are packed most Can you always see the image?
closely together is called the Hold this page about 45 cm from your face.
fovea. This is the part of the retina Close the left eye, and look at the cross with
your right eye. Gradually bring the page
where light is focused when you
closer to you. What happens? Can you
look straight at an object. explain it?
 There are no receptor cells where
the optic nerve leaves a the retina.
This part is called the blind spot.
If light falls on this place, no
impulses will be sent to the brain.
 Try Activity 13.2.
13.3 – Receptors - Retina
The retina
 Behind the retina is a black layer called the choroid. The choroid absorbs all the
light after it has been through the retina, so it does not get scattered around the
inside of the eye. The choroid is also rich in blood vessels which nourish the eye.
 We have two kinds of receptor cells in the retina (Figure 13.12). Rod cells are
sensitive to quite dim light, but they do not respond to colour. Cone cells are able to
distinguish between the different colours of light, but they only function when the
light is quite bright. We have three different kinds of cones, sensitive to red, green
and blue light.
 Rods therefore allow us to see in dim light but only in black and white, while cones
give us colour vision.
 The fovea contains almost entirely cones,
packed tightly together. When we look
directly at an object, we use our cones to
produce a sharp image, in colour. Rods
are found further out on the retina, and
are less tightly packed. They show us a
less detailed image. ▲Figure 13.11 – The eye from
the front
13.3 – Receptors - Retina

Rods and Cones

◄Figure 13.12 – Small

part of the retina showing
rods and a cone
13.3 – Receptors - Retina

▲Figure 3.10 - Section through a human eye (seen from above). ( Note: you do
not need to learn the labels for sclera, choroid, aqueous humour and vitreous
humour but you may find these helpful if you do Activity 13.5.)
13.3 – Receptors - Retina
The Iris
 In front of the lens is a circular piece of tissue called
the iris. This is the coloured part of your eye. The iris
contains pigments, which absorb light and stop it
getting through to the retina.
 In the middle of the iris is a gap called the pupil. The
size of the pupil can be adjusted. The wider the pupil
is, the more light can get through to the retina. In
strong light, the iris closes in, and makes the pupil
small. This stops too much light getting in and
damaging the retina.
 To allow it to adjust the size of the pupil, the iris
contains muscles. Circular muscles lie in circles
around the pupil. When they contract, they make
the pupil constrict, or get smaller.
► Figure 13.13 – The Iris Reflex
13.3 – Receptors - Retina
The Iris
 Radial muscles run outwards from the edge of the pupil. When they contract, they
make the pupil dilate, or get larger (Figure 13.13). This is called the iris reflex (or
sometimes the pupil reflex).
 These responses of the iris are examples of a reflex action. Although the nerve
impulses go into the brain, we do not need to think consciously about what to do.
The response of the iris to light intensity (the stimulus is fast and automatic. Like
many
reflex actions, this is
very advantageous: it
prevents damage to
the retina that could
be caused by very
bright light falling onto
it.

► Figure 13.13 – The Iris

Reflex
13.3 – Receptors - Retina
Focusing light
 For the brain to see a clear image, there must be a clear image focused on the
retina. Light rays must be bent, or refracted, so that they focus exactly onto the
retina. The humours inside the eye are transparent and colourless so that light can
pass through them easily.
 The cornea is responsible for most of the bending of the light. The lens makes fine
adjustments.
 Figure 13.14 shows how
the cornea and lens focus
light onto the retina. The
image on the retina is
upside down. The brain
interprets this so that you
see it the right way up.

►Figure 13.14 – How an

image is focused onto the retina
13.3 – Receptors - Retina
Adjusting the focus Light focused on
Light rays the retina
 Not all light rays need bending by the diverging greatly
same amount to focus them onto the
retina. Light rays coming from an object
in the distance will be almost parallel to
one another. They will not need much
bending (Figure 13.15).
 Light rays coming from a nearby object The Cornea
bends the light
are going away from one another, or rays
diverging. They will need to be bent
The thick lens bends
inwards quite strongly (Figure 13.16). the light rays greatly
▲Figure 13.16
Light focused on – Focusing on a
The thin lens bends the the retina
Light rays diverging only slightly light rays slightly
nearby object

◄Figure 13.16 –
The Cornea
bends the light Focusing on a distant
rays
object
13.3 – Receptors - Retina

▲Figure 13.17 – How the shape of the Lens is changed.

13.3 – Receptors

13.9 What is a stimulus? Q

13.10 Name two parts of the body which contain receptors of chemical stimuli.
13.11 Which part of the eye contains cells which are sensitive to light?
13.12 Your brain can build up a very clear image when light is focused onto the
fovea. Explain why it can do this.
13.13 If you look straight at an object when it is nearly dark, you may find it difficult
to see it. It is easier to see if you look just to one side of it. Explain why this is.
13.14 What is the choroid, and what is its function?
13.15 List, in order, the parts of the eye through which light passes to reach the
retina.
13.16 Name two parts of the eye which refract light rays.
13.17 What is meant by accommodation?
13.18 a What do the ciliary muscles do when you are focusing on a nearby
object?
b What effect does this have on:
i the suspensory ligaments?
ii the lens?
13.4 – The Endocrine System - Glands

Endocrine glands
 So far in this chapter, we have seen how
nerves can carry electrical impulses
very quickly from one part of an
animal’s body to another. But animals
also use chemicals to transmit
information from one part of the body
to another.
 The chemicals are called hormones.
Hormones are made in special glands
called endocrine glands. Figure 13.18
shows the positions of the most
important endocrine glands in the
human body. Table 13.1 summarises
their functions. ▲Figure 13.18 – The main endocrine glands

 Endocrine glands have a good blood supply. They have blood capillaries running
right through them. When the endocrine gland makes a hormone, it releases it
directly into the blood.
13.4 – The Endocrine System - Glands

Endocrine glands
 Other sorts of gland do not do
this. The salivary glands, for
example, do not secrete saliva
into the blood. Saliva is
secreted into the salivary
duct, which carries it into the
mouth. Endocrine glands do
not have ducts, so they are
sometimes called ductless
glands.
▲Figure 13.18 – The main endocrine glands
 Once the hormone is in the blood, it is carried to all parts of the body,
dissolved in the plasma. Although the blood is carrying many
hormones, each affects only certain parts of the body. These are
called its target organs.
13.4 – The Endocrine System - Adrenaline

Adrenaline
 There are two adrenal glands, one above each
kidney. They make a hormone called adrenaline.
When you are frightened, excited or keyed up,
your brain sends repulses along a nerve to your
adrenal glands. This makes them secrete
adrenaline into the blood.
 Adrenaline has several effects which are designed
to help you to cope with danger known as the
'fight or flight’ response. For example, it makes
your heart beat faster, supplying oxygen to your
brain and muscles more quickly.
 This gives them more energy for fighting or
running away. It also increases breathing rate, so
that more oxygen can enter the blood in the
lungs.
Adrenal Gland
13.4 – The Endocrine System - Adrenaline

Adrenaline
 The blood vessels in your skin and digestive system
contract so that they carry very little blood. This makes
you go pale, and gives you ‘butterflies in your stomach’.
As much blood as possible is needed for your brain and
muscles in the emergency.
 Adrenaline causes the pupils in the eye to widen. This
allows more light into the eye, which might help you to
see the danger more clearly.
 Adrenaline also causes the liver to release glucose into
the blood. This provides extra glucose for the muscles,
so that they can release energy from it (by respiration)
and use the energy for contracting.

Key Definition
hormone - a chemical substance produced by 1
gland, carried by the blood, which alters the activity
of one or more specific target organs Adrenal Gland
13.4 – The Endocrine System - Adrenaline

Gland Hormone that Function of hormone

it secretes
Adrenal adrenaline prepares body for vigorous action
gland
Pancreas Insulin reduces the concentration of glucose in
the blood
Testis Testosterone causes the development of male
secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary Oestrogen causes the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics, and
helps in the control of the menstrual
cycle

▲Table 13.1 - Some important endocrine glands and their functions.

13.4 – The Endocrine System - Adrenaline

Nervous system Endocrine system

made up of neurones made up of secretory cells
information transmitted in the information transmitted in the
form of electrical impulses form of chemicals called
hormones
impulses transmitted along chemicals carried dissolved in
nerve fibres (axons and the blood plasma
dendrons)
impulses travel very quickly chemicals travel more slowly
effect of a nerve impulse effect of a hormone may last
usually only lasts for a very longer
short time
▲Table 13.2 - A comparison of the nervous and endocrine systems
of a mammal
13.4 – The Endocrine System - Adrenaline
Q
13.19 Name three endocrine glands, and
the hormone that each secretes.
13.20 How are hormones transported
around the body?
13.21 Describe two situations in which
adrenaline is likely to be secreted.
13.22 How does adrenaline help to
prepare the body for action?
13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants

Plant Coordination
 Like animals, plants are able to respond to their
environment, although usually with much slower
responses than those of animals.
 In general, plants respond to stimuli by changing
their rate or direction of growth. They may grow
either towards or away from a stimulus. Growth Key Definition
towards a stimulus is said to be a positive gravitropism - a
response, and growth away from a stimulus is a response in which a
negative response. plant grows towards or
 These responses are called tropisms. A tropism is a
away from gravity
growth response by a plant, in which the direction phototropism - a
of the growth is affected by the direction of the response in which a
stimulus. plant grows towards or
 Two important stimuli for plants are light and
away from the direction
gravity. Shoots normally grow towards light. Roots from which light is
do not usually respond to light, but a few grow coming
away from it.
13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants

Plant Coordination
 Shoots tend to grow away from the pull of
gravity, while roots normally grow towards it.
 It is very important to the plant that its roots
and shoots grow in appropriate directions.
Shoots must grow upwards, away from
gravity and towards the light, so that the
leaves are held out into the sunlight. The
more light they have, the better they can
photosynthesise. Flowers, too, need to be
held up in the air, where insects, birds or the
wind can pollinate them.
 Roots, though, need to grow downwards,
into the soil in order to anchor the plant in
the soil, and to absorb water and minerals
from between the soil particles.
Root know to grow downwards
13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants
Plant hormones
 We have seen that for an organism to respond to a stimulus, there must
be a receptor to pick up the stimulus, an effector to respond to it, and
some kind of communication system in between. In mammals, the
receptor is often part of a sense organ, and the effector is a muscle or
gland. Information is sent between their, along nerves, or sometimes by
means of hormones.
 Plants, however, do not have complex sense organs, muscles or nervous
systems. So how do they manage to respond to stimuli like light and
gravity?
13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants

Auxin
 One kind of plant hormone is called auxin. Auxin is being made all the time by the
cells in the tip of a shoot. The auxin diffuses downwards from the tip, into the rest
of the shoot.
 Auxin makes the cells just behind the tip get longer. The more auxin there is, the
faster they will grow. Without auxin, they will not grow (Figure 13.19).
 When light shines onto a shoot from all around, auxin is distributed evenly around
the tip of the shoot. The cells all grow at about the same rate, so the shoot grows
straight upwards. This is what normally happens in plants growing outside.
 When, however, light shines
onto a shoot from one side,
the auxin at the tip concentrates
on the shady side (Figure 13.20).
This makes the cells on the
shady side grow faster than the
ones on the bright side, so the
Q
shoot bends towards the light.

► Figure 13.20 - Auxin and phototropism.

13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants

Auxin
 If a potted Coleus plant is placed on its side in a dark room overnight, the shoot will bend
upwards (Figure 13.21). Since there is no light, we can presume the result to be a
response to gravity. (What other precaution should we take to be sure of this?)
 With the stem in the horizontal position, auxin tends to collect on the lower side of the
stem, causing faster growth there. Therefore, the stem curves upward.
 In the same way, in the bean seedlings shown in Figure 13.22, auxin has built up on the
lower surface of the root. The effect here, however, is the opposite to that in the Coleus
shoot. This amount of auxin slows down the growth on this side, and so the radicle bends
downwards.

Before After Whichever way up a seed is planted, its

radicle always grows downwards.
► Figure 13.21 - The response to gravity in a ► Figure 13.22 - The response to
Coleus shoot. gravity in a root.
13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants

Etiolation
 Seedlings grown in the dark are very pale, tall
and thin. In darkness, auxin is also distributed
evenly around the tip, and the shoot grows
rapidly upwards.
 But chloroplasts do not develop properly in
darkness. Therefore plants without light
become yellow and spindly.
 They grow very tall and thin, and have smaller
leaves, which are often further apart than in a
normal plant. Plants like this are said to be
etiolated.
 If these plants reach the light, chlorophyll will
develop, and the plants will begin to grow
normally. If they do not reach
light, they will die because they
cannot photosynthesise.
13.5 – Coordination and Response in Plants

Weedkillers
 Many people use weedkillers in their
gardens. Most weedkillers contain plant
hormones. These hormones are often a
type of auxin, usually a synthetic form
(that is, it has been made in a factory and
not extracted from plants) such as 2,4D.
 The weedkillers used to kill weeds in
lawns are selective weedkillers. When
they are sprayed onto the lawn, the
weeds are affected by the auxin, but the ▲Figure 13.23 - Spraying weedkiller
grass is not (Figure 13.23). on invasive weeds in a national park

 The weeds respond by growing very fast. Then the weeds die, leaving more
space, nutrients and water for the grass to grow.
 Farmers use similar weedkillers to kill weeds growing in cereal crops such as
wheat, millet, maize or sorghum.
13 – Coordination and Response - Summary

Summary
You should know:
 about the central and peripheral nervous system in humans
 about sensory, relay and motor neurones
 about reflex arcs and reflex actions
 the structure and function of a synapse
 about voluntary and involuntary actions
 about sense organs and receptors
 the structure and function of the eye
 how the eye adjusts the focusing of light
 how rods and cones provide night vision and colour vision
 about the pupil reflex
 about the endocrine system
 the function of adrenaline
 how to compare control by hormones and the nervous system
 about tropisms in plants, and how to investigate gravitropism and
phototropism
 how auxin is involved in gravitropism and phototropism.
13 – End of Chapter Questions
1. Choose the term from the list that matches each of the descriptions. A
You may use each term once, more than once or not at all.
circular muscles cones conjunctiva contraction
cornea effector lens motor neurone
myelin sheath receptor relaxation radial muscles
relay neurone retina rods sensory
neurone
suspensory ligaments synaptic cleft
a) a nerve cell that transmits impulses from the central nervous system to
an effector
b) a cell that is sensitive to a stimulus
c) the part of the eye that refracts light rays most strongly
d) the part of the eye that contains receptor cells
e) a small gap between two neurones
f) the action of the ciliary muscle when the eye is focusing on a nearby
object
g) the muscles in the iris that contract to reduce the amount of light
entering the eye
?
13 – End of Chapter Questions
2. Explain the difference between each of the following pairs of terms. A
a cornea, conjunctiva b choroid, sclera c receptor, effector
d sensory neurone, motor neurone
e negative gravitropism, positive gravitropism
3. If you step on a sharp object, muscles in your leg will rapidly pull your foot
away,
a What is the correct term for this type of reaction?
b Using each of the following words at least once, but not necessarily in this
order, explain how this reaction is brought about.
effector electrical impulse motor neurone
receptor relay neurone sensory neurone
4. Identify the type of neurone - sensory, relay or motor - that matches each of
these descriptions. For some descriptions, more than one type of neurone may
match.
a) has its cell body in the central nervous system
b) carries nerve impulses away from a receptor
c) carries nerve impulses towards its cell body
d) carries nerve impulses away from its cell body
e) is entirely inside the central nervous system
f) can have an axon that is more than a metre long
?
13 – End of Chapter Questions
5. The diagram below shows a synapse. A

a) In which direction does this synapse allow a nerve impulse to travel? Explain
your answer.

[1]
b) Describe the roles of the parts labelled A and B in transmitting a nerve impulse
from one neurone to the next.
13 – End of Chapter Questions
6. The light sensitive cells in the eye are A
known as rods and cones. The
diagram shows drawings of a rod cell
and a cone cell.
a) Name the structures labelled A to C.
?
[3]
b) i Name the tissue in the eye
where rods and cones are found
[1]
ii Name the parts of this tissue
where
there are
[1]
cones but no rods
[1]
no cones or rods
Exercise 13.1 - Caffeine and reaction time

You should be getting quite confident at planning experiments by now, so there are no
reminders here about all the different things you need to include (A03.2). You’ll find it
quite tricky to control variables in this one.
You may be able to try out your experiment when you’ve planned it.

Reaction time is the time between receiving a stimulus and responding to it. Plan an
experiment to test this hypothesis:

Consuming drinks containing caffeine decreases reaction time.

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Exercise 13.2 - Accommodation in the eye

Doing this exercise - preferably without looking anything up - will be a good test of how
well you understand how the eye changes in order to focus on objects at different
distances, which is called accommodation. Use a ruler to draw the light rays on your
diagram, and take great care to show clearly where they change direction and where they
are brought to a focus.

The diagram shows an eye focused on a distant object.

Exercise 13.2 - Accommodation in the eye

a) Complete the diagram below to show the eye when it

is focused on a nearby object. Add labels to match
those on the first diagram.
Exercise 13.2 - Accommodation in the eye

b) Describe how the changes that you have shown are

brought about. Use these words in your
description:
ciliary muscles lens
suspensory ligaments
c) Accommodation in the eye is a reflex action,
i Explain what is meant by a reflex action.
ii Suggest what could be the stimulus that brings
about this reflex action.
d) As people get older, their lenses become less able
to change shape. Suggest how this may affect their
vision.
Exercise 13.3 - Auxin and tropism

For the line graphs in this exercise, you are asked to draw best-fit lines. Your lines
should be smooth, and should have roughly the same number of points above
them as below them. Start both lines exactly at 0,0, but they do not necessarily
have to go exactly through the final point.

A plant growing in a pot was

placed on its side, in conditions of
uniform light. The diagram shows
the appearance of the plant after
three days.
a) This response is known as
negative gravitropism. Explain
what is meant by the term
negative gravitropism.
Exercise 13.3 - Auxin and tropism

b) A scientist measured the concentration of auxin in the upper and lower

surfaces of the plant shoot. She also measured the percentage increase in
length of the upper and lower surface of the plant shoot over a period of one
hour.
The tables show her results.
Upper Lower Time/minutes Percentage increase in length
Surface Surface
Upper Lower Surface
Concentration of 1.0 1.4 Surface
auxin /arbitrary units
10 0.9 1.1

20 1.1 2.2

30 1.6 3.8

40 2.0 5.3

50 2.3 6.0

60 2.8 7.6
Exercise 13.3 - Auxin and tropism

i. On the grid, draw line graphs to show the results in the second table (the one
showing percentage increase in length). Draw both lines on the same set of
axes. Draw best-fit lines for each set of results.

ii. Use the results in both tables to explain what made the plant shoot
grow upwards after the pot was turned onto its side.