CHAPTER 5

STATES OF MATTER

5.1 Gas
5.2 Liquid
5.3 Solid
5.4 Phase Diagram
At the end of the topic, YOU should be able to :
(a) Explain qualitatively the basic assumptions of the
kinetic molecular theory of gases for an ideal gas.
(b) Define gas laws :
(i) Boyle’s Law
(ii) Charles’s Law
(iii) Avogadro’s Law
(c) Sketch and interpret the graphs of Boyle’s and
Charles’s laws
(d) Perform calculations involving gas laws and ideal gas
equation
Learning Outcomes

At the end of the topic, YOU should be able to :

(e)Define and perform calculation using Dalton’s Law
(f) Explain the ideal and non-ideal behaviours of gases in
terms of intermolecular forces and molecular volume.
(g) Explain the conditions at which real gases approach the
ideal behaviour.
 Kinetic molecular theory for
ideal gas
1. The volume of gas molecules is negligible
compared with the volume of container.
2. Gases are made up of small particles that
move in continuous, random and straight
line motion.

3. There are no attractive or repulsive forces

between gas molecules.
 kinetic molecular theory for ideal gas

4. The molecular collisions are perfectly

elastic.
(no kinetic energy is gained or lost)
5. Average kinetic energy of the gas
molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature in Kelvin(K).
-Temp , gas molecules move faster
Pressure
 caused by the collisions between the gas
particles and the walls of the container.
 no of gas particles , more collisions,
 Pressure of gas 

 SI unit of pressure : Nm-2 or Pa

Unit of pressure
1 atm = 101 325 Pa = 101. 325 kPa
= 101 325 Nm-2 = 101. 325 kNm-2
= 760 torr

= 760 mmHg
1.Boyle’s Law
at constant temperature, the volume of a
fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional
to its pressure.

V  1 (n and T constant)
P
P1V1=P2V2

initial final
Volume decreases, pressure will be increases.
(gas particles collide with the wall of container more often)
Graph of Boyle’s Law:

P P PV

k
1
P
V V
1
P V 1
P = kV PV = k
y = mx
Charles’s Law

heated – Vincrease
cooled - Vdecrease

VT
11
2. Charles’s Law
at constant pressure, the volume of a fixed
amount of gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas.

V  T (P and n constant)

V1 = V 2 temp must be in K
T1 T2 K = C + 273.15K
Graph of Charles’s Law:
V vs T(K) V vs T(⁰C)
V
V

T(K)
0 -273.15 T(⁰C)

V=kT
y = mx 0 K= -273.15˚ C
 Boyle’s Law Charles’s Law
V  1 VT
P

P1V1 = P2V2
Combined gas
law: T1 T2 (n constant)
3. Avogadro’s Law
at the constant temperature and pressure, the
volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
number of moles of the gas.

V  n (P and T constant)

No. of moles of gas

 Ideal Gas Law
Combining the 3 gas laws:
Avogadro’s law Boyle’s law Charles’s law
1
V  n V  VT
P

V  Tn
P
V = nRT
P
PV = nRT Ideal gas equation
 Ideal gas equation

PV = nRT

gas constant = 0.08206 L atm mol -1K-1

Note :
A gas that obey this equation is known as
ideal gas.
 P1 V1
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume
of 946 ml at a pressure of 726 mmHg.
Calculate the pressure of the gas (in mmHg) if
the volume is reduced to 154 ml at constant
temperature ?
P2 V2

P1 = 726 mmHg P2 = ?
V1 = 946 mL V2 = 154 mL

Answer: P= 4460 mmHg

 Mol of gases

A 5.00 mole sample of NH3 gas is kept in a

1.92 L container at 27 C. What is the
pressure of NH3?
temperature
Volume of gases
occupied

Hint: change unit

PV  nRT Volume = L
Pressure = atm
P  nRT Temperature =K
V
= (5 mol x 0.08206 L atm mol -1K-1 x (27 +273.15 K))
1.92 L

P = 64.1 atm
A steel gas tank has a volume of 275 L and is filled with 0.485 kg of O 2. Calculate the pressure of O2 if the temperature is 29C.

0.485 x 10 3g
n   15.16 mol
O -1
2 32.00 g mol

PV  nRT

P  nRT
V

15.16 mol x 0.08206 L atm mol -1 K-1 x 302.15 K


275 L

= 1.37 atm
Ideal gas equation
can find molar mass & density

n=m
PV= nRT
Mr
Find molar mass Find density, 

PV= nRT PV= nRT

PV = mRT PV = mRT
Mr Mr

Mr = mRT  = m = PMr
PV V RT
What is the molar mass a 1.37 g sample of a gas which occupies a volume of
2.04 dm3 at 27.6oC and 0.95 atm?

Solution :
V = 2.04 dm3 m = 1.37 g
T = (27.6 + 273.15) = 300.75 K P = 0.95 atm
R = 0.08206 dm3 atm K-1 mol-1

= 17.44 g mol-1 can derive using ideal gas equation.

m PV= nRT
Mr  . RT
PV

(1.37 g) (0.08206 dm 3 atm K -1 mol -1 ) (300.75 K)


(0.95 atm) (2.04 dm 3 )
Partial pressure: the pressure that each gas
would exert if it were present alone in the
container.

nART
PA =
V
nBRT
PB =
V

PT = P A + P B
Dalton’s Law
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

The total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting

ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures
exerted by each gas in the mixture.

PT = P A + P B
PT = nTRT
V
Gas A nT = n A + n B
Gas B
Pressure exerted by A
(partial pressure of A, PA)

nART
PA =
V

Pressure exerted by B:

nBRT
PB =
V
Therefore, PT = PA + PB

= nART + nBRT
V V
= (nA+ nB) RT
V
when nA + nB = nT
 A mixture containing 28 g of Ar and 14 g of HBr
gases are present in a 8.0 L container at 30C.
Determine the partial pressure of each gas and the
total pressure inside the container. Assume the gases
are ideal.
28g/39.95 gmol-1

(Called partial
pressure of argon)

= 2.18 atm
 14 g/ (1+79.9) gmol-1

(Called partial
pressure of HBr)

= 0.5381 atm

PT = PAr + PHBr (apply Dalton’s Law)

= 2.18 + 0.5381
= 2.7181 atm
Partial Pressure and Mole Fraction:

Dividing PA by Ptotal :

PA = XA  Ptotal
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Example 1
A mixture of gases contains 0.1 mol of CO2 and 0.3 mol
of O2. Determine the partial pressure of the gases if the
total pressure is 760mmHg at a certain temperature.
Solution:
nO2 = 0.3 mol
nCO2 = 0.1 mol
nT = nO2 + nCO2 = 0.4 mol
PT = 760 mmHg
Solution
Mole
fraction
From Dalton’s Law,
PCO2 = nCO2 x PT
nT
= 0.1 mol x 760 mmHg = 190 mmHg
0.4 mol
PO2 = nO2 x PT
nT
= 0.3 mol x 760 mmHg = 570 mmHg
0.4 mol
@ PO2 = PT – PCO2
= (760 – 190)mmHg
= 570 mmHg
Gas Law

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

Example of Dalton’s Law in laboratory practice is when a gas

is collected over water

gas Oxygen + water vapour

PT  PO 2  PH2 O

The total pressure is not only from the particular gas but also
from water vapour.
 Example 3

Consider the reaction below :

2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2

A sample of 5.45 L of oxygen is collected over water

at a total pressure of 735.5 torr at 25°C.
How many grams of oxygen have been collected?
(at 25°C, the vapour pressure of water is 23.8 torr)
 Solution
PT = 735.5 torr VO2 = 5.45 L T = 298 K

PT = PO + PH O
2 2

735.5 torr = PO + 23.8 torr

2

PO = 711.7 torr
2

= 711.7 torr x 1 atm = 0.936 atm

760 torr
From Ideal Gas equation,
PV = nRT
nO =2 0.936 atm x 5.45 L = 0.209mol
0.0821 Latmmol-1K-1 x 298K
mO 2 = 0.209 mol x 32 g/mol = 6.69g
 Ideal gas Real gas
obeys all the gas laws & does not obey the gas
ideal gas equation law
(PV=nRT)
volume of gas particle is Finite molecular volume
negligible. of the gas particles.

no forces of attraction Existence of

between the gas intermolecular attractive
particles. forces between gas
particles.

Real gas deviates from ideal behaviour especially at:

1.Low temperature
2.High pressure
- Real gas has the following features :
◦ The molecules have the certain volume.
◦ There ARE forces of attraction between the gas
molecules, though they are usually very weak.
◦ The gas obeys the Van der Waals Equation.

- However, real gas obeys ideal gas behaviour at :

 Low pressure
 High temperature
 Low pressure
- When pressure is low the volume is high.
- Molecules are far apart.
- The attractive forces are negligible, gas behaves ideally.
- But when pressure is high, volume of container is low.
- When a gas is compressed the distance between gas
molecules decreases.
- Molecules becomes closer to each other.
- The intermolecular forces become significant.
-  Deviate from ideal gas behaviour !
 Low pressure
Deviation of real gas from ideal gas behaviour can be
shown by plotting PV/nRT against pressure (at
constant temperature)
N2
PV/RT
H2
CO2
1.0 Ideal gas
mol
NH3

P (atm)
200 400 600 800
 High temperature
- When temperature is high, the average kinetic energy of the
gas molecules also high.
- Molecules move faster.
- The attractive forces between gas can be neglected, gas
behaves ideally.
- But when the temperature is low, kinetic energy of the gas
also low.
- Molecules move slowly.
- The attractive forces between gas become significant.
- Deviate from ideal gas behaviour !
Comparison between ideal gas equation
and Van Der Waals equation
Van der Waals equation for real gas:
2
an
(P  2
)(V  nb)  nRT
V
a= constant for correction of
intermolecular forces.
b= constant for correction of the finite
molecular size
CHAPTER 5
STATES OF MATTER

5.2 Liquid
a) Explain the properties of liquids : shape, volume,
surface tension, viscosity, compressibility and
difussion.
b) Explain :
- vaporisation process Based on Kinetic
Molecular Theory and
- condensation process Intermolecular Forces
c) Define vapour pressure and boiling point
d) Explain the boiling process.
e) Explain the relationship between :
i) Intermolecular forces and vapour pressure
ii) Vapour pressure and boiling point
 Three States of Matter

Break Break
attractive attractive
forces forces

Solid Liquid Gas

 5.2 Liquid
Properties of liquid:
1. Has a definite (exact) volume.

o intermolecular forces are strong enough to

control the movement of liquid molecules.
o thus, a liquid is confined to a certain volume
2. Has no definite shape.

o Takes the shape of the container.

o The intermolecular forces are NOT strong enough
to hold the particles rigidly in place.
o Thus, a liquid flows to fit the shape of its container.
- particles able to move freely & flow to fit
the shape of its container.
3. Compressibility:
o Incompressible
- Particles are packed closely together, there are
very little empty spaces.

Liquid Gas
4. Diffusion

o Can flow readily but slower than gas

o Liquid molecules are arranged more
closely than gas
o lower kinetic energy than gases
o stronger intermolecular attractive forces
restrict liquid to diffuse.
5. Viscosity:
tendency of liquid to flow, higher viscosity,
slower it flows.
• Liquid molecules are held by strong
intermolecular forces.

• Stronger intermolecular forces, higher

viscosity, harder to flow.

e.g: honey is more viscous

than water.
6. Surface tension:
Net forces that cause the surface of liquid to stretch
and tighten.
Molecules within a liquid experienced intermolecular
attractive forces in all directions by their neighbouring
molecules.

However, molecules at the

surface are pulled downward and
sideways from the neighbouring
molecules but not upward away
from the surface.

UNBALANCED INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

pull the molecules of the surface INTO the liquid and
cause the surface to TIGHTEN like an ELASTIC FILM.
Explain vaporisation and condensation based on
kinetic molecular theory and intermolecular forces.
Vaporisation:
Process in which liquid is changed into gas.
liquid gas

breaks
intermolecular
forces
As temperature increases, the average
kinetic energy of liquid molecules also
increases.

When the molecules have enough energy

to overcome the attraction between
molecules, they will escape into the
vapour/gas phase.
__________
 Vaporisation rate depends on:
large vaporisation rate
a)Surface area ______,
increases
_______
increases molecules with
b) Temperature _________,
higher
_____ kinetic energy,
more molecules have enough energy to
escape from surface of liquid, evaporation
increases
rate _________.
weaker
c) Intermolecular forces_______,
higher
_______vaporisation rate.
Condensation:
Process in which gas is changed into liquid.

stronger intermolecular
forces exist because
molecules move slowly
As temperature falls , the average kinetic energy
of gas molecules decreases.

The gas molecules move more slowly and near to

each others,

the gas condenses into a liquid when they are

attracted to each other and kinetic energy of
molecules cannot overcome the attractive forces
between molecules.
 Vapour Pressure

Molecules can escape from Some of the When the rate of evaporation and the
the surface of a liquid into the evaporated particles rate of condensation are the same,
gas phase by vaporisation. will eventually the vapour pressure will attain a
As more vapour produced, the condense back into the constant value.
pressure exerted by the liquid. The pressure exerted by the vapor
vapour in space above the molecules at equilibrium with its liquid
liquid will begin to increase. in the closed container is called
the vapor pressure.
Vapour pressure
Pressure exerted by a vapour in equilibrium with its liquid.

At equilibrium:
rate of vaporisation
= rate of condensation

At equilibrium, vapour pressure will attain a constant value.

Boiling point:
Internal P = x atm
Temperature at which the external pressure
= x atm
vapour pressure of liquid
is equal to external
T =80 C
atmospheric pressure. (Boiling point)

Internal P = 1 atm
Normal boiling point: external pressure
=1 atm

temperature at which a
liquid boils when the T =80 C
external pressure is 1 atm. (normal Boiling point)
Factors affecting vapour pressure:
(a) Intermolecular forces weaker,
molecules easily escape ,
Higher vapour pressure.
(b) Temperature increases,
average kinetic energy of molecules increases
and move more rapidly,
easily overcome intermolecular forces,
vapour pressure increases.
 Relationship between vapour pressure,
intermolecular forces and boiling point

Liquid with weaker intermolecular forces are more

volatile and easily escape to form vapour.
oless energy needed to break the weak intermolecular
forces, therefore boiling point is lower.
o As more molecules escape (more gases formed), the
vapour pressure becomes high.
Weaker intermolecular forces,
Higher vapour pressure,
Lower boiling point
 Liquid A Liquid B
(a) Which liquid has higher vapour pressure? _A
A
(b) Which liquid is more volatile? ____
A
(c)Which liquid has weaker attractive forces?___
A
(d) Which liquid has lower boiling point?____
 Please submit the answer for this question in google
form link provided.

1 atm At 1 atm (760 mmhg), explain

why the boiling point of water is
higher than ethanol, and ethanol
is higher than diethyl ether.

*hint:
relate to intermolecular forces,
vapour pressure and boiling point.
CHAPTER 5
STATES OF MATTER

5.3 SOLID
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to :
• Explain the fixed-shape of solid.
• Apply the kinetic concepts to explain the process :
(i) freezing (solidification)
(ii) melting (fusion)
(iii) sublimation
(iv) deposition
• Differentiate between amorphous and crystalline solids.
• State the following types of crystalline solids with appropriate
examples:
i. Metallic ii. Ionic
iii. Molecular covalent iv. Giant covalent
5.3 Solid
Particles are arranged closely in fixed
position.
 strong forces
 has definite shape and volume
 incompressible
 Solid
freezing sublimation
melting deposition

vaporisation
Liquid Gas
condensation
Temperature increase

Temperature decrease
 Explain process using kinetic molecular theory:

Breaks IMF

1. Melting (process which solid changes into liquid)

- When heated, temperature increases,
average kinetic energy increases,
- the solid particles vibrate more vigorously until
enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces.
- Particles able to move freely and change into liquid.
 Present of more
IMF
2. Freezing
(process which liquid changes into solid)
- Average kinetic energy of particles decreases,
- When cooled, temperature decreases,
- liquid particles move more slowly,
- intermolecular forces is strong enough to hold
particles together in a fixed arrangement,
 liquid will change into solid.
3. Sublimation e.g. dry ice
(process in which solid changes into liquid without
going through liquid phase)
When heated, temperature increases, average
kinetic energy also increases,
solid particles move more rapidly,
enough energy to overcome intermolecular forces
and escape as vapour without changing into liquid.
 4. Deposition (process gas changes into solid)

eg. formation of frost

Temperature decreases, average kinetic energy

decreases,
gas particles lose energy drastically and move slower,
attractive forces hold particles in fixed position.
 Types of Solids

Crystalline amorphous
e.g: sugar, ice e.g: glass, plastic
 Types of solid
Crystalline amorphous

 Has a well-defined Lack well-defined shape

shape because the because the particles are
particles have regular 3-D randomly arranged with no
arrangement. orderly structure.

Formed when saturated Formed when saturated

liquid is cooled slowly. liquid is cooled
rapidly.
 Have sharp melting point.  No definite melting point.
CHAPTER 5
STATES OF MATTER

5.4 Phase
Diagram
At the end of this lesson students should be able to:
(a) Define phase,triple point and critical point .
(b) Identify triple point and critical point on the phase diagram.
(c) Sketch the phase diagram of H2O and CO2.
(d) Compare the phase diagram of H2O and CO2 and explain the
anomalous behaviour of water
(e) Describe the phase change with respect to
i. temperature (at constant pressure)
ii. pressure (at constant temperature).
PHASE
Homogeneous part of a system in contact with
other parts of the system which are separated by
a distinct boundary, such as solid, liquid and gas.

78
PHASE

1 component,
1 phase

79
PHASE

1 component,
2 phases

80
PHASE

2 components,
2 phases

81
PHASE DIAGRAM
A pressure-temperature graph on which are
plotted the temperatures and pressures at
which equilibrium exists between the states
of substances.

82
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in
which the solid, liquid and gaseous states of a
substance can exist.

A phase diagram lets

you work out exactly
what phases are
present at any given
temperature and
pressure.
83
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

P1 .1 Condition 1 :

.2 At the specific
temperature and
pressure(P1&T1),

.3 substance X exist as
solid.
84

T1
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

.1 Condition 2 (P2&T2), :
P2 .2 liquid

.3
85

T2
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

.1
.2
Condition 3 (P3&T3), :
P3 .3 vapour

86

T3
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

Increasing the
P- .1 temperature at
constant pressure
from T1 to T2 causes
the substance to …
change from solid to
liquid = melt !
87

T T
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

Increasing P at
constant T from P1
to P2 causes the
P2 substance to..
change from
vapour to liquid =

P1 .1 condense !
88
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

Pcritical
T = triple point

C = critical point
P
89

T T
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

TRIPLE POINT
Pcritical T is the unique point at which
the three lines representing
solid/liquid, liquid/vapour and
solid/vapour meet.
A unique combination of
temperature and pressure
where all three phases exist
P in equilibrium.
90

T T
PHASE DIAGRAM
shows the region of temperature and pressure in which the
solid, liquid and gaseous states of a substance can exist.

CRITICAL POINT
At this point and above,
Pcritical it is impossible to liquefy
a gas, however great
the pressure.
Indeed, the term
‘vapour’ should only be
used below the critical
point, as it implies that it
P
is possible to form a91
liquid.
T T
PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER
atm

218.000

1.000

0.006

0.01 373.85

0 100 °C 92

Melting point Boiling point

PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER
atm B

A °C

T-A : Represents the variation of sublimation temperature with pressure

T-B : Represents the variation of melting temperature with pressure 93
T-C : Represents the variation of boiling temperature with pressure
 PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER
EXPLANATION

At low temperatures under

atmospheric pressure, the
1 atm stable phase is the solid (ice).

At 1 atm, the temperature at which ice and water are at

equilibrium, is called the melting point ( 0○C , 273.15 K). 94
 PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER
EXPLANATION
The line separating the
solid from the liquid phase
is not vertical,
1 atm hence, the transition from
solid to liquid takes place at
different temperatures
0 100 under different pressures.
At temperatures between 0°C and 100°C under 95

atmospheric pressure, the stable phase is liquid water.

 PHASE DIAGRAM OF WATER
EXPLANATION

At 100°C, the line representing

1 atm the equilibrium between liquid
and gas is reached.

0 100
The temperature at which boiling takes place under
atmospheric pressure is called the normal boiling point.
96

The boiling point varies as the pressure varies.

PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
B
atm
C

5.11 T

A °C
-78 -57
T-A : Represents the variation of sublimation temperature with pressure
T-B : Represents the variation of melting temperature with pressure 97
T-C : Represents the variation of boiling temperature with pressure
PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
B
atm
C

5.11 T

A °C
-78 -57
The only thing special about this phase diagram is98
the position of the triple point which is well above
atmospheric pressure.
PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
B
atm
C

5.11 T

A °C
-78 -57

It is impossible to get any liquid carbon dioxide at 99

pressures less than 5.11 atmospheres.

PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
B
atm
C

5.11 T

A °C
-78 -57

That means that at 1 atm, carbon dioxide will 100

sublime at a temperature of -78°C.

PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dry ice = solid carbon dioxide

101
PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
Dry ice = solid carbon dioxide

102
PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
EXPLANATION

The phase diagram of

carbon dioxide is more
typical, showing a rightward
sloping melting temperature
line.

103
PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
EXPLANATION

Triple point for carbon dioxide

is -57oC ( 216.4 K ) and 5.2
atm ( 516 kPa ).

The triple point is above atmospheric pressure, hence,

104

at atmospheric pressure carbon dioxide sublimes.

PHASE DIAGRAM OF CARBON DIOXIDE
EXPLANATION

At this pressure, the liquid

phase is not stable, the solid
simply sublimes.

Thus, solid carbon dioxide is

called dry ice, because …

it does not go through a liquid state in its phase 105

transition at room pressure.

ANOMALOUS BEHAVIOUR OF WATER
EXPLANATION
B
The phase diagram for water is
not typical, the melting
temperature line , T-B, slopes to
1 atm the left (negative slope).

The melting temperature

decreases with pressure.
0 100

This is connected with the fact that ice is less dense than
106

water ; the molar volume decreases when ice melts.