Data Analysis:

Quantitative and Qualitative

• No limit to research can be carried out on organization

• Areas as diverse as culture change:

– Factors associated with the following can be examined

• job satisfaction,
• team performance,
• marketing,
• organizational effectiveness,
• fairness,
• accounting practices, and
• strategic management
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• With numerical measurement it is possible to collect data
and use them to:
– look for important differences or associations between things
– Make valuable predictions
– simplify complex relationships

• By analyzing and interpreting data:

- Ideas can be confirmed or refuted
- Unexpected relationships can be discovered
- Theories can be developed and tested
- Practical recommendations can be made
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 Topic Measurement
job satisfaction of PE teachers how many aspects of the job they are
happy with

Performance of hospitals How long the patients take to recover

after operations

Products Number of defective computers produced

by computer companies

Performance of the schools ?

Performance of Dissertation Writer ?

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QuantitativeData
Analysis:
 Errors in Research

Systematic error (Measurement Error)

Problems with transcribing and coding data; observer/ instrument
error; misrepresentation as error; Inaccurate response
(information bias); Selection bias

Sampling error (random error)

Inadequate sampling frame, low response rate, coverage (some people in
population not given a chance of selection)

Even with probability samples, there is a possibility that the statistics we

obtain do not accurately reflect the population.
 Definition of Statistics
observation
questionnaire
interview
Collection experimentation
documents
Presentation tabular
graphical
(sing.) process Analysis textual
univariate
Statistics Interpretation bivariate
multivariate
(pl) Data

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 Classification of data/variable

Interval
Quantitativeness
Arithmetic Operation (+,-)
Measurement Scale (=, >, <)
Interval Difference
Negative Reading (no true zero point)

Ratio
Quantitativeness
Arithmetic Operation (all)
Measurement Scale (+, >, <)
Interval Difference
Positive Reading (True zero point)

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 Data Level of Measurement Characterictics

Sex Nominal Qualitativeness/Quantitativeness

(coding)
Status Measurement Scale (=)

Management Position Ordinal Qualitativeness/Quantitativeness

(Order)
Year Level Measurement Scale (=, >, <)

Temperature Interval Quantitativeness

Arithmetic Operation (+,-)
IQ test Measurement Scale (=, >, <)
Marking Interval Difference
GPA Negative Reading (no true zero point)
Test Scores like the SAT

Age Ratio Quantitativeness

Arithmetic Operation (+. -, *. /)
Height Measurement Scale (=, >, <)
Weight Interval Difference
Positive Reading (True zero point)

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Statistics
 We use statistics for many reasons:
 To mathematically describe/depict our findings
 To draw conclusions from our results
 To test for relationships among variables
 To test hypotheses
 Statistics
 Powerful tools… we must use them for good.
 Be sure our data is valid and reliable
 Be sure we have the right type of data
 Be sure statistical tests are applied appropriately
 Be sure the results are interpreted correctly

Remember… numbers may not lie, but people can

 Functions of
Statistics C e n tra l te n d e n c y
(lo c a tio n – c e n te r)
Me a n
Me d ia n
Mo d e

Ra n g e
Va ria b ility Q u a rtile d e via tio n
(d isp e rsio n ) SD/ va r/ c v

sym m e try
sh a p e ske w n e ss
su m m a rizin g / (c o n fig u ra tio n ) ku rto sis
c o n d e n sin g m o d a lity
(d e sc rip tive )
b iva ria te
c o rre la tio n m u ltiva ria te
Sta tistic a l te c h n iq u e s
re g re ssio n b iva ria te
(p re d ic tio n ) m u ltiva ria te

p o in t
e stim a tio n in te rva l

g e n e ra lizin g h yp o th e sis te stin g p a ra m e tric

(infe re ntia l) (c o m p a riso n ) n o n -p a ra m e tric
jfabic: statistics: 12
introduction
Descriptive Statistics
 Descriptive Statistics

3 Types

1. Frequency Distributions 3. Summary Stats

Tables # of Ss that fall Describe data in just one
in a particular category number

2. Graphical Representations

Graphs & Tables

1. Frequency Distributions

# of Ss that fall
in a particular category

How many males and how many females are in our class?

Frequency (%)
scale of measurement?
M 40 16.00
nominal
210 84.00
F
Total 250 100.00

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Slide by Isabel Sumaya (modified)
1. Frequency Distributions

# of Ss that fall
in a particular category

Categorize on the basis of more that one variable at same time

CROSS-TABULATION

M F total

Freshmen 50 75 125

Sophomore 25 50 75

Total 75 125 250

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Slide by Isabel Sumaya
 How many brothers & sisters do you have?

1. Frequency
Distributions
(Ungrouped data)
# of bros & sis Frequency
7 10
6 20 5 3
4 5
3 7
2 2
1 2
0 1
Total 50

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Slide by Isabel Sumaya (modified)
 2. Graphical Representations

Graphs & Tables

Bar graph (ratio data - quantitative)

Line Graph
Pie Chart

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Slide by Isabel Sumaya
 3. Summary Statistics
Measure Types
Central Tendency Mean = center of gravity
Median = middle observation
Mode = highest frequency
Other Locations Quartile (4 parts)
Decile (10 parts)
Percentile (100 parts)
Variation/Deviation Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Coefficient of Variation
Shape Skewness
Kurtosis
Standard Deviation Normal Distribution and Skewness

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Answer briefly!

Which set of scores is the most variable?

 Summary Statistics
describe data in just 2 numbers

Measures of central tendency Measures of variability

• typical average score • typical average variation
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 Table 1.1
Age of the Respondents
Number of
Respondents
Age (f) Percent
17 35 38.89
18 26 28.89
19 11 12.22
20 18 20.00
Total 90 100.00

Table 1.1 presents the age of the respondents. It further presents that 17 out 90
students (38.89%) were of 17 years old while 18 (20%) were of 20 years old.
The mean age of the respondents was 18.13 years. It means the center of
gravity among the ages was 18.13 years. The median age of the respondents was 18
years. It means that 50% of the respondents were of age below or above 18 years. The
modal age of the respondents was 17 years. It means most of the respondents were at
age 17 years.
Twenty-five percent (25%) of the respondents were of age equal or below 17
years as supported by the computed Q1 value, 17 years. Eighty-five percent (85%) of
the respondents were of age was 20 as supported by the computed P85 value, 20
years.
The ages of the respondents were closed to one another as supported by the
computed standard deviation value, 1.14 years.
It is expected that students should be in college education starting at the age of
17. Hence, the respondents in this study were at the right age for college education.

This implies that JRU follows the age policy for college education
 Table 7.1
Level of Helpfulness of the Pilates Course as to
Improvement in Posture

  Indicators WM SD VI
1 It corrected my posture problem 4.77 .471 VHLOH
2 It improved Thoracic kyphosis - improvement in lumbar lordosis 4.37 .530 HLOH
3 It improved my Flat back 4.43 .514 HLOH
4 It improved my Concave back 4.43 .541 HLOH
  Overall Result 4.50 .279 VHLOH

VHLOH = Very High Level of Helpfulness

HLOH = High Level of Helpfulness
ALOH = Average Level of Helpfulness
LLOH = Low Level of Helpfulness
VLLOH = Very Low Level of Helpfulness
Inferential Statistics
 What is a Statistic????

Sample
Sample
Sample

Population
Sample

Parameter: value that describes a population (N)

Statistic: a value that describes a sample (n)

 always using samples!!!
 Important statistical terms
Population:
a set which includes all
measurements of interest
to the researcher
(The collection of all responses,
measurements,
or counts that are of interest)

Sample:
A subset of the population
(confidence level and margin of error)
 Chain of Reasoning for
Inferential Statistics

Selection
Sample
Population

Measure
Inference data

Probability

Are our inferences valid?…Best we can do is to calculate probability

about inferences
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kmbIobVN1pg&feature=emb_logo
Slovin’s Formula

n = N/(1+Ne2) = ?

Where: n = sample size

N = population = 10,000
e = margin of error =5%
 Sampling & Statistics

• Sampling – selection of samples from the population

• Statistics depend on our sampling methods:

– Probability (Random) ?
– Non-probability (Non-random)?
?Why sampling

Get information about large populations

 When it’s impossible to study the whole population
 Less costs
 Less field time
 Types of sampling

 Non-probability (Non-random samples)

 Probability samples (Random samples)

 Probability samples

 Random sampling
 Each subject has a known equal probability/chance of being
selected

 Allows application of statistical sampling theory to results to:

 Test hypotheses
 Generalise
 Methods used in probability
samples

 Simple random sampling

 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling

 Multi-stage sampling
1. Simple random sampling

The first
five
samples
are: 20, 27,
29, 32, and
40
 624257
904125
Table of random 602140 First 4
numbers 582032 samples are:
154785
912024 04125
Example 362333 02140
254789 05263
N = 10,000 120325 03686
905263
n = 385 0 107 4 2 4
503686
 Systematic sampling

Sampling fraction
Ratio between sample size and population size

Example
N = 7,500
n = 380

k th = N/n = 20th
Random start = 8 (by draw lot)
2. Systematic sampling

The first 3
samples are:
8, 28, 48
 Stratified sampling (Strata/groups/categories)

Example: Sections, Year Level, Status

3. Stratified Random Sampling
1. N =500 n = 222
2. Proportional allocation

no. of sample
Number of per
Year Level Students Percent stratum

1st year 165 165/500 (222) 73

2nd year 134 134/500 (222) 59

3rd year 112 112/500 (222) 50

4th year 89 89/500 (222) 40

N 500   222
Population and Sample

Sample
City University Population Total Desktop VR
University 1 3265 50 25 25
City 1 University 2 2990 46 23 23
University 1 3578 54 27 27
City 2 University 2 2989 46 23 23
University 1 2789 42 21 21
City 3 University 2 2978 46 23 23
University 1 2992 46 23 23
City 4 University 2 3419 52 26 26
Total 25000 382 191 191
 Cluster sampling .4

Cluster: a group of sampling units close to each other

i.e. crowding together in the same area or neighborhood

 Cluster sampling
Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 5. Multi-stage sampling

 Multi-stage sampling (sampling processes from one stage

to the other)

 Country>regions>provinces>municipalities>barangays>zones
 Non probability samples
 Convenience samples (ease of access)
* sample is selected from elements of a population that

are easily accessible

 Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)

 Purposive sampling (judgemental)

 You chose who you think should be in the study
 Non probability samples

Probability of being chosen is unknown

- Not appropriate for Testing hypotheses

- Cheaper, but unable to generalise

- Potential for bias

 Conclusions

 Probability samples are the best

 Ensure
 Representativeness
 Precision
 Hypothesis
A statement about what findings are expected

null hypothesis
“The two groups will not differ“ (A = B)

alternative hypothesis
“Group A will do better than group B“ (A > B)
(one-tailed test)

“Group A and B will not perform the same" (A ≠ B)

(two-tailed test)
 Inferential Statistics

When making comparisons

btw 2 sample means there are 2
possibilities

Null hypothesis is false

Null hypothesis is true

Reject the Null hypothesis

Not reject the Null Hypothesis
 Possible Outcomes in
Hypothesis Testing (Decision)

Null is True Null is False

Correct
Accept Error
Decision
Type II Error

Correct
Reject Error
Decision
Type I Error

Type I Error: Rejecting a True Hypothesis

Type II Error: Accepting a False Hypothesis
Criterion in Hypothesis Test

1. Critical value vs. test statistic

If the absolute value of your test statistic is greater than the critical value, you
can declare statistical significance and reject the null hypothesis.

Critical values correspond to α, so their values become fixed when you choose the
test's α.

2. p-value vs. level of significance

If the p-value is less than the level of significance, reject the null hypothesis.

The lower the p-value, the greater the statistical significance of the observed difference.
How to
determine
the
appropriate
test
statistic
Sample presentation of
Statistical Treatment in
Chapter 3
Statistical Treatment
The researcher uses the following statistical and data analysis tools:
For RQs 1, 2 and 3 frequency counts, Likert Scale and weighted means will be used.
Frequency Counts. Frequencies are the raw counts of items or the number of appearances that an item has. It can also be expressed as the
relationship between the parts to its whole. Ranks, on the other hand, refer to the order between two variables
Likert Scale. A 5-point Likert scale will be used in most of the assessments. The degree of agreement or disagreement, desirability or non-
desirability, and effectivity or non-effectivity will be measured and interpreted accordingly:
Note that the ranges for the lowest and highest interval have equal halves dispersion. This is made in order to maintain the normality of the
distribution of the respondents according to their responses.
Weighted Mean. Weighted mean is similar to an arithmetic mean (the most common type of average); where instead of each data points
contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others. The notion of weighted mean is very useful in descriptive
statistics. This is computed to determine the group’s response for each item from Part B.
The formula is: x ̅_w=∑▒wf/N where:
x ̅_w = weighted mean
w = weights assigned
f = frequencies for each option
wf = sum of all weighted scores
N = number of respondents in the sample
 For SOPs 4 and 5, t-test for independent data and Analysis of Variance will be

used appropriately. These tools will be used respectively on the number of groups

of population to test the significance of difference in the level of sports celebrity

idol worship level and sports involvement level when the participants will be

grouped together with the profile variables. The level of significance in the study

was set at alpha equals 0.05, with a confidence level of 95 percent.

Formulas:
  For RQ No. 6, correlation coefficient will be used to determine the significance of the relationship between sports celebrity idol
worship and the sports involvement level.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation(r) will be used to establish the correlation between two sets of
variables. In terms of significance, it will be decided to set the value of 95% confidence interval level (p<0.05).

The formula is:

where:
r = the Pearson coefficient of correlation
X = mean score of the respondents measuring
Y = mean score of the respondents measuring
n = the number of paired observations.

 
 
The following ranges were used for interpretation:
 
Range of values Verbal Interpretation
 
±1.00 Perfect (Positive/negative) Correlation
±0.80 – ±0.99 Very High (Positive/negative) Correlation
±0.60 – ±0.79 High (Positive/negative) Correlation
±0.40 – ±0.59 Moderate (Positive/negative)) Correlation
±0.20 – ±0.39 Weak or Low (Positive/negative) Correlation
±0.00 – ±0.19 Very Low or Zero (Positive/negative) Correlation

The significance of the coefficient r impact will be determined by using the p-value, meaning, if the p-value is less than the level of
significance, the null hypothesis is to be rejected.
 All of these statistical treatments will be handled by using SPSS software. The SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is a software package used in statistical analysis
of data. It was developed by SPSS Inc. and acquired by IBM in 2009. In 2014, the software
was officially renamed IBM SPSS Statistics. The software was originally meant for the social
sciences, but it has become popular in other fields such as health sciences and especially in
marketing, market research and data mining, education, and other type of researches.
 
APPLICATIONS
Statement of the Problem
Research Aim. This study aimed to determine the impact of digital tools in the enhancement of the
mathematical skills of the Grade 5 pupils in José Rizal University.
Research Questions. Specifically, the researcher sought to discover the answers to the following
questions:
1. What is the mathematical performance of the experimental and control groups before the utilization of
the digital tools in teaching Mathematics? (Mean, SD)
2. Is there significant difference in the mathematical performance between the experimental and control
groups before the utilization of the digital tools in teaching Mathematics? (t-test for independent data
3. What is the mathematical performance of the experimental and control groups after the utilization of the
digital tools in teaching Mathematics? (Mean, SD)
4. Is there significant difference in the mathematical performance of the experimental and control groups after
the utilization of the digital tools in teaching Mathematics? (t-test for independent data)
5. Is there a significant difference between the mathematical performance of experimental and control groups
before and after the utilization of the digital tools in teaching Mathematics? (t-test for dependent data)
Statement of the Problem
The following are the research aim and research questions of this study:
Research Aim. The primary aim of this research is to determine the level of learning experiences of
K-12 graduates on the Enhanced Basic Education and its impact to their college academic performance.
Research Questions. Specifically, this study will answer the following questions:
1.What is the profile of the respondents in terms of
1. 1 gender, (frequency count, %, mode)
1. 2 course, and (frequency count, %, mode)
1.3. type of school they graduated from? (frequency count, %, mode)
2. What is the level of the over-all learning experiences of the respondents in Enhanced Basic Education
(K to 12)
2.1 students’ learning experiences, and (Likert Scale, Weighted Mean (WM))
2.2 teachers’ readiness and instruction? (Likert Scale, WM)
3. What is the level of college achievement of the K-12 graduates? (Mean, SD)
4. Is there a significant relationship between the over-all learning experiences and level of college
achievement of the K-12 graduates? Pearson r
5. Based on the result of the study, what recommendations are to be made in order to create positive
learning experience to would be the K-12 graduates?
Research Questions. Specifically, the study will answer the following questions:
1. What is the profile of the respondents as to
1.1. school type, (frequency count, %, mode)
1.2. school location and (frequency count, %. Mode)
1.3. number of years of school operation? (frequency count, %, mean, SD)
2. What is the level of women leadership in the academe in terms of hard and soft power? (Likert Scale, WM)
3. What type of school environment (positive or negative) do the teachers experience in their respective
schools? (Likert Scale, WM)
4. What is the level of the work intentions of the teacher-respondents? (Likert Scale, WM)
5. What is the relationship between the level of women leadership and of the following variables:
5.1 school environment and Chi-square
5.2 work intentions? Chi-square
6. What is the difference in the level of women leadership when the respondents are grouped according to
profile variables? Chi-square
7. What development programs may be proposed for professional development of women school leaders in
terms of how they use their power in influencing their teachers?
Statement of the Problem
Research Aim. The main purpose of this study was to determine the influence of adolescent daughters in the buying decision of mothers.
Research Questions. It specifically sought to answer the following questions:
 1. What is the demographic profile of the mother respondents as to:
1.1 Age,
1.2 Employment Status; and
1.3 Family income?
2. What is the profile of the adolescent daughter respondents as to:
2.1 Age; and
      2.2 Birth order?
3. What is the shopping priority of the mother respondents?
4. What is the shopping influence factor of adolescent daughters and mothers as to:
4.1 Product knowledge; and
4.2 Consumer involvement?
5. Is there a significant difference in the shopping-influence factor between adolescent daughters and mothers?
6. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of the participants on communication level between mothers and daughters as to shopping activities?
7. Is there a significant difference in the assessment of the participants on the buying decision pattern of mothers?
8. Is there a significant difference in the buying decision pattern of mothers when grouped according to profile variables?
9. Do product knowledge and consumer involvement influence the buying decision of mothers directly or indirectly?
10. What model can be formulated to determine the influences on the buying decision of mothers?
Qualitative Method
Qualitative Method

Systems for Analysis of Qualitative Data

1. Content Analysis.
2. Grounded Analysis.
3. Social Network Analysis.
4. Discourse Analysis.
5. Narrative Analysis.
6. Conversation Analysis.

Computer-Aided Analysis.
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https://www.facebook.com/drking5star/photos/a.1746308228948898/2340709112842137/
https://
www.you
tube.co
m/watch
?
v=lYzhg
MZii3o 68
https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?
v=sHv3RzKW
NcQ 69
 Qualitative Method

Ways to maintain objectivity and avoid bias with

qualitative data analysis:

1. Use multiple people to code the data.

2. Have participants review your results.
3. Verify with more data sources.
4. Check for alternative explanations.
5. Review findings with peers.

70
Day 5 Output
Determine the statistical tools to be applied per RQ of your Proposal
Title.

71
References
Compiled Notes
How to code document and create themes. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sHv3RzKWNcQ
Qualitative Methodologies Beginners Guide for Qualitative Coding. https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lYzhgMZii3o
Qualitative Data Analysis Method. https
://www.facebook.com/drking5star/photos/a.1746308228948898/2340709112842137/

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End of Day 5