GENERAL ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY for CCJE
CHEMISTRY – the science of everyday experience. It is defined as the
study of matter – its composition, properties and transformations. It studies
anything that we touch, feel, see, smell, or taste.

 Different branches of chemistry:

 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Scientific Method is a step by step process commonly practiced by scientists but is applicable to
anyone who wanted to solve a problem systematically. Those are:

 Observation
 Gathering data / Hypothesis
 Experimentation
 Analysis of the Result
 Conclusion

This process is very effective and it could lead to more reliable and better solution to a certain
problem.
Can you apply this in your own personal problems?
Significant Digit: Significant figures – are all the
digits in a measured number including one estimated digit.

DETERMINING THE NUMBER OF Ex. 2570 – three sig. figs.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 1,245,500 – five sig. figs.
 All nonzero digits are always significant.
 At the end of a number with a decimal point
Ex. 255.345 - six significant figs.
 A zero counts as a significant figure when it Ex. 25.70 – four significant figures
occurs: 3.7500 – five significant figures
 Between two nonzero digits
620. – three significant figures
Ex. 1.0087 – five sig figs.
  
 - A zero does not count as a significant figure
 - It is not significant when it occurs at when it occurs at the beginning of a number.
the end of a number that does not have a Ex. 0.0245 – three significant figures
decimal point. 
  
 .
 Using Significant Figures in:

 In multiplication and division, the  Addition and Subtraction

answer has the same number of  The answer has the same number of
significant figures as the original decimal places as the original number
with the fewest decimal places.
 number with the fewest significant
Ex. 10.11 kg (2 decimal places)
figs.
-- 3.6 kg ( 1 decimal place)
 Ex. 351.2 miles - four sig. figs. 6.51 kg
 5.5 hours - two sig. Answer must be 6.5 – (with only 1 decimal
figs. place)
Ex. 3.52 (three decimal places)
 = 63.854 miles/hr
+ 2.2 ( one decimal place)
 = 64 miles /hr (the answer 0.59 (two decimal places)
must have two sig. figs.)
6.31, but the correct answer must be
6.3 (one decimal place)
 
 SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS
Exercises:
 1.How many significant figures does each number  Every measurement is composed of a
contain?
number and a unit. Ex. 1 gallon
a. 34.08 b. 0.0054
c. 260.00d. 260 
 The International System of Units (SI)
was formally adopted as the uniform
 2. Indicate whether each zero in the following numbers is
significant.
system of units for the sciences. SI
units are based on the metric system.
a. 0.00304 b. 26,045
c. 1,000,034 d. 0.30400 
 THE BASIC METRIC SYSTEM
 3.Carry out each calculations and give the answer using Quantity Base Unit Symbol
the proper number of significant figures. Length Meter M
a. 3.81 x 0.046 Mass Gram G
b. 120.085 / 106 Volume Liter L
c. 27.8 + 0.246 Time Second S
d. 54.6 - 25
 
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 To write numbers that contain many leading zeros (at the beginning) or trailing zeros (at
the end), scientists use scientific notation.
In scientific notation, a number is written as y x 10ª
The term y, called the coefficient, is a number between 1 and 10.

The value a is an exponent, which can be any positive or negative whole number.
 Example: 3.6 x 10² ; y = 3.6 and a = 2
Write each number in scientific notation:
(a) 2,500 = 2.5 x 10³ b) 0.036 = 3.6 x 10¯²
Exercises: Write the recommended daily dietary intake of each nutrient in scientific notation:
(a) sodium, 2400 mg (b) vitamin B₁₂ , 0.000006 g
 Common Prefixes Used for Metric Units
Prefix Symbol Meaning Numerical Sci.
Value Notation

Mega- M Million 1,000,000 106

Kilo- K Thousand 1,000 103

Deci- D Tenth 0.1 10-1

Centi- C Hundredth 0.01 10-2

Milli- M Thousandth 0.001 10-3

Micro- µc Millionth 0.0000001 10-6

Nano- N Billionth 0.000000001 10-9

 Solving a problem using two or more conversion factors
 
  Always arrange the factors so that the denominator in
one term cancels the numerator in the preceding term.
Ex. Problem. An individual donated 1.0 pint of blood at the
local blood bank. How many liters of blood does this Exercises:
correspond to?
 1.A patient is prescribed 0.100 mg of a
Analysis and Solution
drug that is available in 25 - µg tablets.
 Identify the original quantity and the desired quantity. How many tablets are needed?
1.0 pint - original quantity
? L - desired quantity
 2. How many millilitres of Children’s
 Write out the conversion factors.
Motrin (100 mg of ibuprofen per 5 mL)
2 pints = 1 quart are needed to give a child a dose of 160
1L = 1.06 quart mg
 Solve the problem. 
L

`
 Representative Densities at 25°C

 Temperature – is a measure of how cold or hot an

object is. Substance Density Substance Density
(g/mL or (g/mL or
°F = 1.8 (°C) + 32
cc) cc)
K = °C + 273
 Density and Specific Gravity
Oxygen 0.00143 Urine 1.003-1.030
 
Density – is a physical property that relates the
mass of a substance to its volume.
Gasoline 0.66 Blood 1.03
Density = mass (g) / volume (mL or cc) plasma

A less dense substance floats on a more dense Ice 0.92 Table sugar 1.59
liquid.
 
See some representative densities at 25ºC. Water 1.00 Bone 1.80
Specific Gravity – is a quantity that compares the
density of a substance with the density of water at
4°C.
 Specific gravity = is a quantity that compares the density of a substance with the density
of water at 4ºC
density of a substance (g/mL) / density of water (g / mL)

ρ = m / v ; specific gravity = ρ of substance / ρ of water

density of water = 1 gram / ml or 1 kg / li

 If the density of a liquid is 0.80 g / mL, what is its specific gravity?

 If the specific gravity of a substance is 2.3, what is its density?
 MATT E R

Matter exists in three common states – solid, liquid, and gas

 
 A solid has a definite volume, and maintains its shape regardless of the container
in which it is placed. The particles of a solid lie close together, and are arranged
in a regular three-dimensional array.
 
 A liquid has a definite volume, but takes on the shape of the container it occupies. The
particles of a liquid are close together, but they can randomly move around, sliding past
one another.
 
 A gas has no definite volume or shape. The particle of a gas move randomly and are
separated by a distance much larger than their size. The particle of a gas expand to fill
the volume and assume the shape of whatever container they are put in.
 Matter and Measurement – page 4 of book
Changes of Phase
 Converting a solid to a liquid – the process is called melting.
Ex. a butter placed on a heated pan
 Liquid to solid – freezing
Ex. A liquid water placed inside a freezer
 Liquid to gas – vaporization
Ex. Evaporation of salt water to form salt crystals
 Solid to gas – sublimation
Ex. Naphthalene balls placed in closet to protect clothes from cockroaches
 Gas to solid – deposition
Ex. White solid particles seen on ones hair after using hair spray
 Give your own examples.
 ATOMS
To determine if a substance is an acid or
 ELEMENT is a pure substance that cannot be a base, a pH paper is used. pH refers to the
broken down into simpler substances by a concentration of hydrogen ion. An acid
chemical reaction. usually contains hydrogen ion.

Ex. Sodium, Mercury, Argon…. pH range is from 1 to 14

 COMPOUND is a pure substance formed by
 Acid solution – pH is less than 7
chemically combining two or more elements  Basic solution – pH is greater than
together. 7
Ex. NaCl, H₂O, HCl  Neutral solution – pH is 7
 A compound can either be an acid or a base.  The lower the pH, the higher the
An acid contains a hydrogen atom and dissolves concentration of the hydronium ion.
in water to form a hydrogen ion. (H+ ); like HCl,
HNO₃
 An acid + a base = salt, this is a
neutralization process.
 A base contains hydroxide and dissolves in
water to form OH--. ; NaOH, Ba(OH)₂
 STRUCTURE of an ATOM

 ATOM – building blocks of matter

Sub-atomic particles
1. Proton – (p) has a positive charge
ELECTRONS
2. Electron – (e--) has a negative charge
3. Neutron – (n) has no charge
 
PROTO
 The nucleus is a dense core that contains the protons and NS /
ELECTRONS
EE
NEUTR ELECTRON
neutrons. Most of the mass of an atom resides in the ONS S
nucleus.
 
 The electron cloud is composed of electrons that move
rapidly in the almost empty space surrounding the nucleus. ELECTRONS
The electron cloud comprises most of the volume of an
atom.
 
 ** Opposite charges attract while like charges repel each
other.
 
 Atoms

 One atomic mass unit (amu) equals one-

 Mass number – is the number of protons + the
twelfth of a carbon atom that has six protons number of neutrons.
and six neutrons; 1 amu = 1.661 x 10—24 g. Ex. A fluorine atom with 9 protons and 10
  neutrons in the nucleus has a mass number of 19.

 The atomic number is the number of protons in  

the nucleus of an atom. The number of protons  Exercise Problem
in the nucleus is equal to the number of
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are
electrons.
contained in each atom with the given atomic
  number and mass number.
 Exercise problem: 1. At. No. = 17, Mass No. = 35
An element has nine protons and 10 neutrons 2. At. No. = 14, Mass No. = 28
in the neutral atom. (a) How many electrons are
3. At. No. -= 92, Mass No. = 238
present in the neutral atom? (b) What is the atomic
number of this element? (c) Identify the element.
 ISOTOPE
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having a
different number of neutrons.  Exercise Problem: Magnesium has three
isotopes that contain 12, 13, and 14
Ex. Two isotopes of the element chlorine
neutrons. For each isotope, give the
Chlorine – 35, Chlorine- 37 following information:
Information given by an atom.   
 118 Sn : the superscript gives the mass
50 1. The number of protons
number and the subscript gives the atomic 2. The number of electrons
number,
3. The atomic number
 The atomic number = the no. of protons = the no.
of electrons. 4. The mass number
 The mass number = the number of protons + the 5. Write the isotope symbol of each
number of neutrons. isotope
 
 Atomic Weight – is the weighted average of the Mass Isotopic Abundance
mass of the naturally occurring isotopes of a
particular element reported in atomic mass units.
 Cl-35 34.97 75.78% = 0.7578
82 --- atomic number-----  Cl-37 36.97 24.22% = 0.2422

Ex. Pb ----element symbol---

 The mass of any isotope is very close to the
207.2 ---atomic weight --- mass number of the isotope.
 To convert a percent to a decimal, divide by
100%,
 Determine the atomic weight of an
element  Multiply the isotopic abundance by the mass of
each isotope, and add up the products. The sum
What is the atomic weight of the element is the atomic weight for the element.
chlorine?
 Mass due to Cl-35 0.7578 x 34.97 = 26.5003
Chlorine has two isotopes – Cl-35 and Cl-37  Mass due to Cl-37 0.2422 x 36.97 =
To solve the problem, the masses and abundances of 8.9541
the isotopes must be known.  Hence, 26.5003 + 8.9541 = 35.4544
 Exercise Problem: THE PERIODIC TABLE
Calculate the atomic weight of copper
which has two isotopes with the following  The periodic table evolved over
properties: Cu-63 (62.93 amu, 69.17%
many years, and it resulted from the
natural occurrence) and Cu-65 (64.93 amu,
careful observations and experiments of
30.83% natural occurrence)
many brilliant scientists in the 19th
century. DMITRI MENDELEEV, a
Russian chemist, arranged 60 known
elements into groups having similar
properties in order of increasing atomic
number.
 The periodic table is arranged into seven horizontal rows and 18
vertical columns. The particular row and column tell us much about
the properties of an element.
 A row in the periodic table is called a period. Elements in
the same row are similar in size.
Alkali metals are:
 A column in the periodic table is called a group. Elements  Soft and shiny and have low melting
in the same group have similar electronic and chemical
points.
properties.
 Good conductors of heat and electricity.
 The main group elements consist of the two columns on
the far left and the six columns on the far right of the table.  React readily with water to form basic
These groups are numbered 1A-8A. solutions.
 The transition metal elements are contained in the 10 Valence electrons – are the electrons in the
short columns in the middle of the table, numbered 1B-8B. outermost shell. The group number tells the
number of the valence shell.
 The inner transition metal elements are not assigned
group numbers.
 Elements that comprise a particular group have similar
chemical properties.
 
 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

 Why do elements in a group of the periodic  The shells are numbered, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and
table have similar chemical properties? The so forth, beginning closest to the nucleus.
chemical properties of an element are  Electrons closer to the nucleus are held
determined by the number of electrons in
more tightly and are lower in energy.
an atom.
 Electrons farther from the nucleus are held
 Electrons do not move freely in space; rather
less tightly and are higher in energy.
an electron is confined to a specific region,
giving it a particular energy.  Note: The farther a shell is from the
nucleus, the larger its volume becomes, and
 Electrons occupy discreet energy levels. The
the more electrons it can hold. Thus the
energy of electrons is quantized; that is the
first shell can hold only two electrons, the
energy is restricted to specific values.
second can hold eight, the third 18, and so
 The electrons that surround a nucleus are forth.
confined to regions called the principal
energy levels or shells.
  The second shell of electrons (n=2) has
 Shells are subdivided into subshells, identified
two types of orbitals –one s and three p
by the letters s, p, d, and f. the subshells consist
orbitals. These orbitals are called the 2s
of orbitals. An orbital is a region of space where
and 2p orbitals, the third shell (n=3) has
the probability of finding an electron is high.
three types of orbitals—one s, three p,
Each orbital can hold two electrons.
and five d orbitals. These orbitals are
 A particular type of subshell contains a specific called the 3s, 3p and 3d orbitals. The
number of orbitals. fourth shell of electrons (n=4) has four
s - 1 s orbital types of orbitals—4s, 4p, 4d and 4f
orbitals.
p - 3 p orbitals
 Thus the maximum number of
d - 5 d orbitals electrons that can occupy a shell is
f - 7 f orbitals determined by the number of orbitals in
the shell.
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
 An s orbital has a sphere of electron density. It  The lowest energy arrangement of
is lower in energy than other orbitals in the electrons is called the ground state.
same shell because electrons are kept closer to  When orbitals are equal in energy,
the positively charged nucleus.
one electron is added to each orbital
 A p orbital has a dumbbell shape. A p orbital is until the orbitals are half-filled, before
higher in energy than an s orbital in the same any orbital is completely filled.
shell because its electron density is farther from
the nucleus.
 ORBITAL DIAGRAM - uses a box to
 All s orbitals are spherical, but the orbital gets
represent each orbital and arrows to
larger in size as the shell number increases.
represent electrons. A single electron,
Thus both a 1s and a 2s orbital are spherical but
called an unpaired electron ( ) points
the 2s orbital is larger. The three p orbitals in a
upward. Two electrons in an orbital have
shell are perpendicular to each other along the
paired spins – that is, the spins are
x, y, and z axis.
opposite in direction—so up and down
arrows ( ) are used.
Elements in the same group have the same number The chemical properties of a group are
of valence electrons and similar electronic similar because these elements contain the
configurations. same electronic configuration of valence
The group number (using the 1A – 8A system) electrons.
equals the number of valence elecrons for the
main group elements except (except helium)
What elements in the first and second
period fit each description?
Exercise Problem:
 1. The element has one electron in the
 What element has each electronic
second energy level.
configuration?
1. 1s2 2s2 3s2 3p2
 2. There are two electrons in the 2s
orbital.
l Ne l 3s2 3p4
 3. The electronic configuration is 1s2 2s2
2. 1s 2
2s 2
2p 6
3s 2
3p 6
4s 2
3d 1
2p5
l Ar l 4s2 3d10  4. The element contains six electrons in
  the second energy level.
 
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION and the PERIODIC TABLE

Exercise Problem:
 The periodic table can be divided into four
regions called blocks, labelled s, p, d, and f.  Give the orbital diagram for the ground
The blocks are labelled according to the state electronic configuration of the
subshells that are filled with electrons last. element sulphur and aluminum. Convert
the electronic configuration of
 The s block consists of groups 1A and 2A and
aluminum to noble gas notation.
the element helium. The s subshell is filled last
in these elements.  
 The p block consists of groups 3A -8A (except  Note: Electrons in the outermost shell
helium). The p subshell is filled last in these are called valence electrons.
elements.  Ex. Be 1s2 2s2------ 2 valence electrons
 The d block consists of the 10 columns of
transition metals. The d subshell is filled last l valence shell

in these elements.
 The f block consists of the two groups of 14
transition metals. The f subshell is filled last in
these elements.
 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION and
THE PERIODIC TABLE
 Elements in the same group have the same
number of valence electrons and similar  Ex. Problem: Identify the total number of
electronic configurations. valence electrons, and the name of the element
with each electronic configuration.
 The group number (using the 1A-8A system)
equals the number of valence electrons for main  1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
group elements (except helium).  4 valence electrons
 The periodic table is organized into groups of  Total no. of electrons = 14
elements with similar valence electronic
configurations in the same column. Element is silicon (Si)
 The chemical properties of a group are similar  
because these elements contain the same  Exercise Problem: Determine the number of
electronic configuration of valence electrons. valence electrons and give the electronic
 All elements of group 8A elements have a configuration of the valence electrons of each
completely filled outer shell of valence electrons. element : a) nitrogen b) potassium

 
 PERIODIC TRENDS
Periodic trends - the manner in which properties of atoms change in a regular
way across a row or down a column of the periodic table. Two of such properties
are atomic size and ionization energy.

Atomic Size Ionization Energy

 The size of an atom is measured by its  A negatively charged electron is attracted to a positively charged
atomic radius—that is, the distance from nucleus, hence energy is required to remove an electron from a neutral
the nucleus to the outer edge of the valence atom. The more tightly the electron is held, the greater the energy
shell. required to remove it. Removing an electron from a neutral atom forms a
cation – a positively charged ion, and has fewer electrons than the
-- The size of atoms increases down a column
neutral atom.
of the periodic table, as the valence electrons
are farther from the nucleus.  The ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron
from a neutral atom.
 The size of atoms decreases across a row of
the periodic table as the number of protons  Ionization energies decrease down a column of the periodic table as the
in the nucleus increases. An increasing valence electrons get farther from the positively charged nucleus.
number of protons pulls the electrons closer 
Ionization energies increase across a row of the periodic table as the
to the nucleus, so the atom gets smaller.
number of protons in the nucleus increases.
 Exercise Problems: IONIC COMPOUNDS AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
Arrange the elements in each group  Ionic compounds are composed of positively and negatively
in order of increasing ionization charged particles held together by strong electrostatic forces. Ex.
energy. NaCl and CaCO3
 Electrostatic forces – are the electrical attraction between
 Phosphorus, silicon, sulphur oppositely charged ions.
 Magnesium, calcium, beryllium
 Covalent compounds – are composed of individual molecules,
discrete groups of atoms that share electrons.
 Carbon, fluorine, beryllium
 Bonding is the joining of two atoms in a stable arrangement.
 Neon, krypton, argon Noble gases do not really react to form bonds.
 Tin, silicon, sulphur  In bonding, elements gain, lose, or share electrons to attain the
 Calcium, aluminium, nitrogen electronic configuration of the noble gas closest to them in the
periodic table.
Bonding involves only the valence electrons of an atom.
 
 Two kinds of bonding Two types of Ions
 Ionic bonds- result from the transfer of  Cations – positively charged
electrons from one element to another.  Anions – negatively charged
Ionic bonds form between a metal and a  Metals form cations by losing one, two or three
non-metal. electrons with a completely filled outer shell of
Ex. An electron of sodium is transferred to electrons.
the chlorine atom in NaCl, an ionic compound.  Nonmetals form anions by gaining one, two or
sometimes three electrons.
 Ions – are charged species in which the
number of protons and electrons is not  A main group element is especially stable when it
equal. possesses an octet of electrons in its outer shell.

 Covalent bonds – results from the sharing  Example Problem:

of electrons between two atoms.  Write the ion symbol for an atom with (a) nine protons
10 electrons (b) three protons and two electrons.
 Molecule – is a compound containing two
or more atoms joined together with Exercise Problem: Write the ion symbol for an atom
covalent bonds. with the given number of protons and electrons.
 19 protons and 18 electrons
 Ex. H : H 2 electrons (represented by 2
dots) are shared in a covalent bond  7 protons and 10 electrons

 
 LEWIS STRUCTURE
 
 How to draw a Lewis Structure
 A molecular formula shows the number and
identity of all of the atoms in a covalent  
compound, but it does tell us what atoms are  Arrange the atoms next to each other that you
bonded to each other. think are bonded together. Always place
hydrogens and halogens on the periphery
since atoms form only one bond.
 A Lewis structure shows the connectivity  H
between the atoms, as well as where all the
 Ex. CH4 H C H
bonding and nonbonding valence electrons
reside. H
  Hydrogen cannot form two bonds.

Drawing Lewis Structures  As a first approximation, use the

common bonding patterns to arrange the
 Draw only the valence electrons atoms.
 Give every main group element (except H ..
hydrogen) an octet of electrons  For CH5N H C N H
 Give each hydrogen two electrons H H

 
 Lewis structure
Exercise Problem.
 Draw a Lewis structure for ethylene, a
2. Count the valence electrons compound of molecular formula C 2H4 .

Use the group number of a main group element to give  Draw a Lewis structure for formic acid with
the number of valence electrons. the given arrangement of atoms.

This sum gives the total number of electrons that must

be used in drawing the Lewis structure
.. .. .. .. . . H --C = C -- H
 Ex. N – N N=N NΞN .. : :
.. . . . .
  H H
Triple bond
EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE
Each N now has 8 electrons.
 Hydrogen is a notable exception, because it
 After placing all electrons in bonds and lone pairs, use a accommodates only two electrons in bonding.
lone pair to form a multiple bond if an atom dos not Additional exceptions include elements such as
have an octet. boron, phosphorus and sulphur. ..
 A triple bond contains six electrons in three two - :F:
electron bonds.
.. ..
 A double bond contains four electrons in two two-
electron bonds Ex. BF3 :F B F :
.. ..
 Boron atom has only six electrons  P has 10 electrons, S has 12 electrons.
around it. There simply aren’t enough
electrons to form an octet; boron do not
.
have enough valence electrons to form an
octet. .. :O: ..
.  H2SO4 HO S OH
:O:
.. :O: ..
.. l ..
.
 H3PO4 HO -- P -- OH
.. l ..
: OH
..
 Naming Covalent Compounds
 Example: a) NO2 b) N2 O4
1. Name the first non-metal by its element name and the
second using the suffix –ide.
• N₂ O₄ contains two N atoms, so use
the prefix di __dinitrogen. Since N₂ O₄
• In both compounds the first non-metal is nitrogen. contains four O atoms, use the prefix
• To name the second element, change the name oxygen tetra- and omit the a ---- tetroxide (not
to oxide. tetraoxide). Thus N₂ O₄ is A
2. Add prefixes to show the number of atoms of each Exercise Problem.
element.
1. Name each compound a) CS₂ b)
• Use a prefix from Table 4.1 for each element.
SO₂ c)PCl₅ d) BF₃
• Usually the prefix mono is omitted when only one
atom of an element is present. An exception to this rule is
2. Give the formula for each
the molecule CO, named as carbon monoxide to distinguish compound:
it from CO₂, carbon dioxide. a)Silicon dioxide
• When the prefix and element name would place two
b)phosphorus trichloride
vowels next to each other, omit the first vowel. Ex., mono +
oxide = monoxide (not monoxide). c) sulfur trioxide
• NO₂ contains one N atom, so the prefix mono is d) dinitrogen trioxide
understood. Since NO₂ contains two O atoms, use the prefix
di-, dioxide. Thus, NO₂ is nitrogen dioxide.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 A physical change alters the physical state of a  Coefficient – the numbers written in
substance without changing its composition. front of any formula are called
coefficients. Coefficients show the
 A chemical change – chemical reaction – converts
number of molecules of a given element
one substance into another.
or compound that react or are formed.
 Chemical reaction involves breaking bonds in the  When a formula contains a
starting materials called reactants, and forming new
subscript, multiply the coefficient by the
bonds in the products.
subscript to give the total number of
atoms of a given type in that formula.
WRITING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS Ex. 2O₂ = 4 atoms

 A chemical equation is an expression that uses 2 H₂O = 4 H atoms and 2 O

chemical formulas and other symbols to illustrate atoms
what reactants constitute the starting materials in a  Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in
reaction and what products are formed. a chemical reaction.
 CHEMICAL REACTION

Coefficients are used to balance an equation. TYPES of CHEMICAL REACTIONS

 CH₄ + 2 O₂ CO₂ + 2 H₂O 1. Combustion Reaction. Oxygen in excess

1 C atom : 1 C atom (usually from air) combines with organic
compounds, those composed of carbon, hydrogen,
4 H atoms : 4 H atoms oxygen and possibly other elements. Because of the
4 O atoms : 4 O atoms presence of carbon and usually hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and water are expected to be products, as the
burning of nonane (C₉H₂0) shows.
• The subscripts in a formula can never be changed to balance
an equation. Changing a subscript changes the identity of a
compound.  C₉H₂0 + 14O₂ 9CO₂ + 10 H₂O
• Balance the equation with coefficients one element at a time.
• Check to make sure that the smallest set of whole numbers is 2. Replacement (displacement) reactions.
used.
A more active element can replace a less active
one in a compound.
 Write a balanced equation for the reaction of glucose
(C₆H₁₂O₆) with oxygen (O₂) to form carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H₂O).  2 Na + ZnI₂ 2 NaI + Zn
 CaI₂ + F₂ CaF₂ + I₂
 3. Double displacement -(metathesis)  Acid-metal reactions. An acid, such as
reactions. This reaction commonly occurs in HCl, HF, H2CO3, and a metal more
solution when the reactants produce ionic active chemically than the acid’s
solution with an exchange of ions if one hydrogen can react to form a salt and
combination produces a compound that hydrogen gas.
precipitates an insoluble salt.

 2HCl + 2Na 2 NaCl + H₂

AgNO₃ + NaCl NaNO₃ + AgCl  2 HNO₃ + Mg Mg(NO₃)₂ + H₂
(Insoluble salt)
Ba(NO₃)₂ + K₂SO₄ 2KNO₃ + BaSO₄
(insoluble salt)
 7. Decomposition reactions.
5. Acid-base reactions (neutralization). An acid, A single reactant is transformed by heat or
which contributes H+ (H₃O+) ions, and a base, which electricity into two or more products.
contributes OH—ions, undergo metathesis to produce 2HgO 2Hg + O₂ or
water (HOH or H₂O) and a salt. Isn’t this a special case of
a double displacement reaction? 4HgO 2Hg₂O + O₂
The reaction involving HgO depends on
temperature and oxygen pressure.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + HOH
Exercise Problem:
2HNO₃ + Mg(OH)₂ Mg(NO₂)₂ + 2HOH  One term in a balanced chemical equation
contained the coefficient 3 in front of the
formula Al2(SO4)3 . How many atoms of each
6. Combination reactions. Elements and/or
type of element does this represent?
compounds combine into one product.
 Write a chemical equation from the following
description of a reaction. One molecule of
2SO₂ + O₂ 2SO₃ gaseous methane (CH4) is heated with four
molecules of gaseous chlorine (Cl2), forming
P₄ + 6Cl₂ 4PCl₃ or P₄ + 10 Cl₂ 4PCl₅
one molecule of liquid carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) and four molecules of gaseous
 The reaction involving P4 and Cl2 depends on hydrogen chloride (HCl).
the ratio of the reactants, temperature, and pressure.  
 The Mole and Avogadro’s Number Mass to Mole conversions
 The formula weight is the sum of the
atomic weights of all the atoms in a
 A mole is a quantity that contains 6.02 x 10²³ items -
compound, reported in atomic mass units
usually atoms, molecules, or ions.
(amu). The term molecular weight is
used in place of formula weight for
 Avogadro’s number – named after the Italian scientist covalent compounds since they are
Amadeo Avogadro who first proposed the concept of composed of molecules, not ions.
a mole (mol). Formula weight of NaCl
1 mol of C atoms = 6.02 x 10²³ atoms Atomic weight of 1 Na = 22.99
1 mol H₂O molecules = 6.02 x 10²³ amu
molecules Atomic weight of 1 Cl = 35.45
amu

 We can use Avogadro’s number as a conversion factor Formula weight of NaCl = 58.44
to relate the number of moles of a substance to the amu
number of atoms or molecules it contains.
 Exercise Problem:
1. Calculate the formula weight of iron (II)
sulphate, FeSO₄ Mole To Mass Conversions
2. Calculate the formula weight of CaCO₃ Ex. What is the mass of 0.25 moles of
water?
Molar mass – is the mass of one mole of any
substance, reported in grams per mole. 0.25 mol H₂O ? g og H₂O
 The value of the molar mass of an element in Original quantity desired
the periodic table (in grams per mole) is the quantity
same as the value of its atomic weight (in amu). Solution:
Since the formula weight of NaCl is 58.44 amu, its 1 mol / 18.02 g H₂O
molar mass is 58.44 g/mol. 0.25 mol H
What is the molar mass of nicotine, (C₁₀H₁₄ N₂)