Memory Organization
Dr. Bernard Chen Ph.D.
University of Central Arkansas
Outline
Memory Hierarchy
Cache
Cache performance
Memory Hierarchy
The memory unit is an essential component
in any digital computer since it is needed for
storing programs and data
Not all accumulated information is needed by
the CPU at the same time
Therefore, it is more economical to use low-
cost storage devices to serve as a backup for
storing the information that is not currently
used by CPU
Memory Hierarchy
Since 1980, CPU has outpaced DRAM
Gap grew 50% per
year
Memory Hierarchy
Q. How do architects address this gap?
A. Put smaller, faster “cache” memories
between CPU and DRAM. Create a
“memory hierarchy”.
Memory Hierarchy
The memory unit that directly communicate
with CPU is called the main memory
Devices that provide backup storage are
called auxiliary memory
The memory hierarchy system consists of all
storage devices employed in a computer
system from the slow by high-capacity
auxiliary memory to a relatively faster main
memory, to an even smaller and faster cache
memory
Memory Hierarchy
The main memory occupies a central position by being able to
communicate directly with the CPU and with auxiliary memory
devices through an I/O processor
A special very-high-speed memory called cache is used to
increase the speed of processing by making current programs
and data available to the CPU at a rapid rate
Memory Hierarchy
CPU logic is usually faster than main memory access
time, with the result that processing speed is limited
primarily by the speed of main memory
The cache is used for storing segments of programs
currently being executed in the CPU and temporary
data frequently needed in the present calculations
The typical access time ratio between cache and
main memory is about 1 to 7~10
Auxiliary memory access time is usually 1000 times
that of main memory
Main Memory
Most of the main memory in a general
purpose computer is made up of RAM
integrated circuits chips, but a portion of the
memory may be constructed with ROM chips
RAM– Random Access memory
Integated RAM are available in two possible
operating modes, Static and Dynamic
ROM– Read Only memory
Random-Access Memory
(RAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
Each cell stores bit with a six-transistor circuit.
Retains value indefinitely, as long as it is kept powered.
Relatively insensitive to disturbances such as electrical noise.
Faster (8-16 times faster) and more expensive (8-16 times more
expensice as well) than DRAM.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Each cell stores bit with a capacitor and transistor.
Value must be refreshed every 10-100 ms.
Sensitive to disturbances.
Slower and cheaper than SRAM.
SRAM vs DRAM Summary
Tran. Access
per bit time Persist? Sensitive? Cost Applications
SRAM 6 1X Yes No 100x cache memories
DRAM 1 10X No Yes 1X Main memories,
frame buffers
Virtually all desktop or server computers since
1975 used DRAMs for main memory and
SRAMs for cache
ROM
ROM is used for storing programs that are
PERMENTLY resident in the computer and
for tables of constants that do not change in
value once the production of the computer is
completed
The ROM portion of main memory is needed
for storing an initial program called bootstrap
loader, witch is to start the computer
software operating when power is turned off
Main Memory
A RAM chip is better suited for
communication with the CPU if it has one or
more control inputs that select the chip when
needed
The Block diagram of a RAM chip is shown
next slide, the capacity of the memory is 128
words of 8 bits (one byte) per word
RAM
ROM
Memory Address Map
Memory Address Map is a pictorial representation of
assigned address space for each chip in the system
To demonstrate an example, assume that a computer
system needs 512 bytes of RAM and 512 bytes of
ROM
The RAM have 128 byte and need seven address
lines, where the ROM have 512 bytes and need 9
address lines
Memory Address Map
Memory Address Map
The hexadecimal address assigns a range of
hexadecimal equivalent address for each chip
Line 8 and 9 represent four distinct binary
combination to specify which RAM we chose
When line 10 is 0, CPU selects a RAM. And
when it’s 1, it selects the ROM
Outline
Memory Hierarchy
Cache
Cache performance
Cache memory
If the active portions of the program and data
are placed in a fast small memory, the
average memory access time can be reduced,
Thus reducing the total execution time of the
program
Such a fast small memory is referred to as
cache memory
The cache is the fastest component in the
memory hierarchy and approaches the speed
of CPU component
Cache memory
When CPU needs to access memory, the cache
is examined
If the word is found in the cache, it is read from
the fast memory
If the word addressed by the CPU is not found
in the cache, the main memory is accessed to
read the word
Cache memory
When the CPU refers to memory and finds
the word in cache, it is said to produce a hit
Otherwise, it is a miss
The performance of cache memory is
frequently measured in terms of a quantity
called hit ratio
Hit ratio = hit / (hit+miss)
Cache memory
The basic characteristic of cache memory is its fast
access time,
Therefore, very little or no time must be wasted
when searching the words in the cache
The transformation of data from main memory to
cache memory is referred to as a mapping process,
there are three types of mapping:
Associative mapping
Direct mapping
Set-associative mapping
Cache memory
To help understand the mapping
procedure, we have the following
example:
Associative mapping
The fastest and most flexible cache organization uses
an associative memory
The associative memory stores both the address and
data of the memory word
This permits any location in cache to store ant word
from main memory
The address value of 15 bits is shown as a five-digit
octal number and its corresponding 12-bit word is
shown as a four-digit octal number
Associative mapping
Associative mapping
A CPU address of 15 bits is places in the
argument register and the associative
memory us searched for a matching address
If the address is found, the corresponding 12-
bits data is read and sent to the CPU
If not, the main memory is accessed for the
word
If the cache is full, an address-data pair must
be displaced to make room for a pair that is
needed and not presently in the cache
Direct Mapping
Associative memory is expensive
compared to RAM
In general case, there are 2^k words in
cache memory and 2^n words in main
memory (in our case, k=9, n=15)
The n bit memory address is divided
into two fields: k-bits for the index and
n-k bits for the tag field
Direct Mapping
Direct Mapping
Set-Associative Mapping
The disadvantage of direct mapping is that
two words with the same index in their
address but with different tag values cannot
reside in cache memory at the same time
Set-Associative Mapping is an improvement
over the direct-mapping in that each word of
cache can store two or more word of memory
under the same index address
Set-Associative Mapping
Set-Associative Mapping
In the slide, each index address refers
to two data words and their associated
tags
Each tag requires six bits and each data
word has 12 bits, so the word length is
2*(6+12) = 36 bits
Outline
Memory Hierarchy
Cache
Cache performance
Cache performance
Although a single cache could try to supply
instruction and data, it can be a bottleneck.
For example: when a load or store instruction is
executed, the pipelined processor will simultaneously
request both data AND instruction
Hence, a single cache would present a structural
hazard for loads and stores, leading to a stall
Cache performance
One simple way to conquer this
problem is to divide it:
One cache is dedicated to instructions
and another to data.
Separate caches are found in most
recent processors.
Average memory access time
Average memory access time =
% instructions * (Hit_time + instruction miss rate*miss_penality)
+
% data * (Hit_time + data miss rate*miss_penality)
Average memory access time
Assume 40% of the instructions are
data accessing instruction.
Let a hit take 1 clock cycle and the miss
penalty is 100 clock cycle
Assume instruction miss rate is 4% and
data access miss rate is 12%, what is
the average memory access time?
Average memory access time
60% * (1 + 4% * 100) +
40% * (1 + 12% * 100)
= 0.6 * (5) + 0.4 * (13)
= 8.2 (clock cycle)
Virtual Memory
The address used by a programmer will be
called a logical address
An address in main memory is called a
physical address
Virtual Memory
Only part of the program needs to be in
memory for execution
Logical address space can therefore be
much larger than physical address
space
Allows for more efficient process
creation
Virtual Memory
The term page refers to groups of
address space of the same size
For example: if auxiliary memory
contains 1024K and main memory
contains 32K and page size equals to
1K, then auxiliary memory has 1024
pages and main memory has 32 pages
Virtual Memory
Demand Paging
In stead of loading whole program into
memory, demand paging is an
alternative strategy to initially load
pages only as they are needed
Lazy Swapper: Pages are only loaded
when they are demanded during
program execution
Demand paging basic
concepts
When a process is to be swapped in,
the pager guesses which pages will be
used before the process is swapped out
again.
Instead of swapping in a whole process,
the pager brings only those necessary
pages into memory
Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a
valid–invalid bit is associated
(v=> in-memory , i =>not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all
entries
During address translation, if valid–invalid bit
in page table entry is i => page fault
Valid-Invalid Bit Example
Valid-Invalid Bit Example
Page Fault
Page Fault
Performance of Demand
Paging
Page Fault Rate 0 ≤p≤1.0
if p= 0 no page faults
if p= 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)=
(1-p)*ma + p*page fault time
Performance of Demand
Paging
9.4 Page Replacement
What if there is no free frame?
Page replacement –find some page in
memory, but not really in use, swap it
out
In this case, same page may be
brought into memory several times
Basic Page Replacement
Page Replacement
Page Replacement Algorithms
Goal:
Want lowest page-fault rate
Evaluate algorithm by running it on a
particular string of memory references
(reference string) and computing the
number of page faults on that string
FIFO
When a page must be replaced, the
oldest page is chosen
FIFO
When a page must be replaced, the oldest page is
chosen
In all our examples, the reference string is
1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
3 frame (9 page faults)
4 frame (10 page faults)
Notice that the number of faults for 4 frames is
greater than the umber of faults for 3 frames!! This
unexpected result is known as Belady’s anomaly
FIFO 3 frame
Page
#
1 2 3 4 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 4 4 4 5 5 5
2 2 2 1 1 1 3 3
3 3 3 2 2 2 4
FIFO 4 frame
Page
#
1 2 3 4 1 2 5 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 4 4
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 5
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4 3 3 3
FIFO Illustrating Belady’s
Anomaly
FIFO Algorithm
Optimal Page-Replacement
Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for
longest period of time
This is a design to guarantee the lowest
page-fault rate for a fixed number of
frames
Optimal Page-Replacement
Algorithm
Optimal Page-Replacement
Algorithm
Optimal Page-Replacement
Algorithm
Unfortunately, the optimal page-
replacement is difficult to implement,
because it requires future knowledge of
the reference string
Least-recently-used (LRU)
algorithm
LRU replacement associates with each
page the time of that page’s last use
When a page must be replaced, LRU
chooses the page that has not been
used for the longest period of time
Least-recently-used (LRU)
algorithm
Least-recently-used (LRU)
algorithm
Least-recently-used (LRU)
algorithm
The major problem is how to implement LRU
replacement:
1. Counter: whenever a reference to a page is made,
the content of the clock register are copied to the
time-of-use filed in the page table entry for the
page. We replace the page with the smallest time
value
2. Modified Stack: Whenever a page is referenced, it
is removed from the stack and put on the top. In
this way, the most recently used page is always at
the top of the stack
Stack implementation
Second-Chance Algorithm
Basically, it’s a LRU algorithm
If the page is referenced, we set the bit into
1
When a page has been selected, we inspect
its reference bit.
If the value is 0, we proceed to replace this
page, otherwise, we give the page a second
chance and move on to select the next page
Second-Chance Algorithm
When a page get a second chance, it’s
reference bit is cleared, and its arrival
time is reset to the current time
If a page is used often enough to keep
its reference bit set, it will never be
replaced
Second-Chance Algorithm
Counting Based Page
Replacement
Least Frequently used (LFU) page-
replacement algorithm
Most frequently used (MFU) page-
replacement algorithm
When there is a tie, use FIFO
Least Frequently used (LFU)
page-replacement algorithm
7 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 2 3 0
REF.
String
7 7 7 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2
Count
0 1 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 2 2
4 1 1 1 1
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
