ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

ADVANCED PETROLOGY AND MAPPING (Geol 6011)

________________________________________________________

February 2021
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1.2. SEDIMENTARY FACIES AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
__________________________________________

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 LECTURE OUTLINE
 SEDIMENTARY FACIES
 Concept of Facies
 DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
 Continental Depositional Environment
 Alluvial fan Depositional Environments
 Fluvial Depositional Environments
 Lacustrine Depositional Environments
 Transitional
 Delta Depositional Environments
 Marine Depositional Environments
 Shallow Marine Depositional Environments
 Deep Marine Depositional Environments

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 Learning Objectives
 To understand the origin and classification of marine sediments sedimentary facies
concept of facies

 To explain the erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments.

 Explain the factors controlling origin and deposition of sediment on the continental
shelf and in the deep ocean.

 To understand the rate of sedimentation in the deep sea.

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 1.2.1. Concept of Facies
 Sedimentary Facies
 A mass of sedimentary rock which can be defined and distinguished from others by
its geometry, lithology, sedimentary

 Defined by, fauna and flora, geology, geomorphology, climate, weather, temperature,

and if sub-aqueous, the depth, salinity, and current system of the water could be
a site of erosion, non-deposition, or deposition.

 Erosional/non-depositional environments preserved in the rock record as
unconformities, structures, paleocurrent pattern and fossils.

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Figure 1.2.1. Relationship between sedimentary environments and sedimentary facies

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 Sedimentary Facies…Contd’
 Sedimentary facies are bodies of sediment that originate simultaneously in adjacent
depositional environments.
 For example, a beach facies can usually be distinguished from a tide flat facies, both
of which were deposited at the same time adjacent to each other.

 Compared to the beach facies, the tide flat facies will have smaller average sediment
grain size, more bioturbation fossils, contain cross-beds and ripples created by tidal
currents, and have more mollusk or other shallow-water fossils preserved in their
original place, in unbroken form.

 There will not be a sharp boundary between the two facies preserved in the
sedimentary record.

 Instead the boundary between them will be a zone with beds of sediment that
grade into each other sideways.
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 Applicability….Facies Model
 An idealized description of a facies Constructed from modern environments and ancient rocks
 Serves as a
 Norm for comparison
 Framework for observation
 Predictor of patterns
 Facies Patterns
 Groups of facies commonly show patterns
 Proximal Facies (near the source) tend to be coarse grained
 Distal Facies (far from source) tend to be finer grained
 This pattern is displayed upstream and down in rivers and onshore to offshore in coastal areas
 Facies are arranged according to distribution of depositional environments
 Facies Migration
 Facies migrate through space and time
 Migration is in response to environmental factors
 Sediment supply
 Sea level change
 Subsidence
 Facies become stacked during migration
 A single facies is likely to be different ages in different locations
 ..\Clastic facies models and facies analysis.pdf

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 WALTHER’S LAW AND FACIES ANALYSIS
Walther’s Law of the Correlation of Facies
 Only works where there are no unconformities
 Only facies that were laterally adjacent during deposition (Result of laterally
adjacent environments) can be stacked vertically
 Vertical arrangement of facies gives us information on
 Distribution of environments
 How environments migrated through space and time
 Used as a basis to build facies maps or paleogeographic maps
 Accurate time correlation of facies is essential
 Time lines provide framework for correlation
 Bio-events
 Volcanic ashes
 Other thin, unique lithologies or marker beds

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Figure 1.2.2. Figure depicting Walters law

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 11

Walther’s Law of Correlation of Facies

 Relationship between vertical and lateral variations
 The fact that there is lateral variation in facies leads to vertical variation in facies
 Walther’s Law of Correlation of Facies

 Lateral variations are expressed in the vertical due to the succession of facies

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 12
Walther's Law of Correlation of Facies
 “Only those lithofacies which are a product of sedimentary environments found
adjacent to one another in the modern can be occur superimposed in continuous,
uninterrupted stratigraphic succession.”

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 13

Walther’s Law: Transgression-Regression

 Transgression
 Landward movement of shoreline (progessive deepening)
 Stand on beach
 Over time, you would be under water as shoreline moved landward

 Regression
 Seaward movement of shoreline
 (progressive shallowing)

 Results in lateral and vertical changes

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 14

Transgression
 Geometric relationship of "graded, shore parallel facies belts“
 Fining Upwards Sequence: FUS
 More basin-ward facies overlie more landward facies
 Compared to depositional systems models

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 15

Transgression and Regression

 Shallowing upwards, shoreline moves basinward through time-->
Regression
 Sea level drop +/- uplift +/- sediment supply
 Progradation
 Excess sediment supply relative to accommodation space

 Forced Regression
 Relative sea level drop and formation of erosion surfaces: Unconformity (surface
of subaerial exposure)
 Soils; kaolinitized, clay-rich layers
 Angular discordance with underlying units (disconformity)
 Plant remains, rooted zones
 Non-genetic stratal relationships: basinward shift in sedimentary facies
 Strata across lithologic boundaries NOT in accordance with Walther’s law

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 16

Regression
 Geometric relationship of "graded, shore parallel facies belts“
 Coarsening Upwards Sequence: CUS
 More landward facies overlie more basin-ward facies
 Compared to depositional systems models

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 4.2. Depositional Environment
 A depositional environment is a specific type of place in which sediments
are deposited, such as a stream channel, a lake, or the bottom of the deep
ocean.

 The layers of sediment that accumulate in each type of depositional

environment have distinctive characteristics that provide important
information regarding the geologic history of an area.

 The characteristics that can be observed and measured in a sedimentary

rock to deduce its depositional environment include its lithology, its
sedimentary structures, and any fossils it may contain.

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 WHY ARE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
IMPORTANT?
 Reconstructing Earth History: By analysing a sedimentary rock, a geologist can
deduce what was happening on earth at the place and time the sediment was originally
being deposited.

 Understanding Earth Processes: Sediments are deposited in many environments

on the earth's surface, some of which humans have little familiarity with, such as deep
ocean environments.
 DISCUSSION:
 HOW ARE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS IDENTIFIED?
 WHAT IS AN ALLUVIAL FAN?.......A FAN-SHAPED, TERRESTRIAL DEPOSIT
 WHERE IS IT FOUND?....AT THE TRANSITION OF MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS WHERE THERE IS TECTONIC MOVEMENT
WHICH MAINTAINS HIGH RELIEF BETWEEN MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS
 HOW IS IT FORMED?....MOUNTAINS SHED SEDIMENT OFF THEIR FLANKS STREAMS CARRY IT AWAY AS ALLUVIUM.
STREAM CARRIES LOTS OF ALLUVIAL SEDIMENT EASILY WHEN ITS SLOPE IS STEEP AND ENERGY IS ABUNDANT.
 WHAT ARE THE THREE WAYS STREAMS TRANSPORT SEDIMENTS?

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Figure 1.2.6.Classification of Major Depositional Environments

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 1.2.2.1 CONTINENTAL (TERRESTRIAL) ENVIRONMENTS
 FLUVIAL AND ALLUVIAL SYSTEMS
 Three geomorphological zones can be recognised within fluvial and alluvial systems.
 In the erosional zone the streams are actively down-cutting, removing bedrock
from the valley floor and from the valley sides via downslope movement of
material into the stream bed.
 In the transfer zone, the gradient is lower, streams and rivers are not actively
eroding, but nor is this a site of deposition.
 The lower part of the system is the depositional zone, where sediment is
deposited in the river channels and on the floodplains of a fluvial system or on
the surface of an alluvial fan.

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 LAKES AND LACUSTRINE ENVIRONMENTS
 Lakes form where there is a supply of water to a topographic low on the land surface.
 They are fed mainly by rivers and lose water by flow out into a river and/or
evaporation from the surface.
 The balance between inflow and outflow and the rate at which evaporation occurs
control the level of water in the lake and the water chemistry.
 Under conditions of high inflow the water level in the lake may be constant,
governed by the spill point of the outflow, and the water remains fresh.

 Discussion
 What are the most common components of lake deposits?
 How can lacustrine facies be recognized?

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 1.2.2.2.TRANSITIONAL (SHORELINE) DEPOSITIOANL
ENVIRONMENTS
 RIVER MOUTHS
 DELTAS AND
 ESTUARIES

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Figure 1.2.7. Controls on delta environments and facies.

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Figure 1.2.8. Classification of deltas based on grain size, and sediment supply mechanisms

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Figure 1.2.9. Deltaic depositional environment: Two sub-environments, The delta top and the delta front.

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Figure 1.2.10. Cross-section across a delta lobe: progradation results in a coarsening up succession.

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1.2.2.3. Marine Environments

Figure 1.2.11. A cross-

section from the
continental shelf through
the continental slope and
rise down to the abyssal
plain.

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Figure 1.2.12. Depth-related divisions of the marine realm: (a) Broad divisions are defined by water depth; (b) The
shelf is described in terms of the depth to which different processes interact with the sea floor, and the actual depths
vary according to the characteristics of the shelf.

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 Deep Marine Environments
 The deep oceans are the largest areas of sediment accumulation on Earth
 Around the edges of ocean basins sediment shed from land areas and the continental shelves
is carried tens to hundreds of kilometres out into the basin by gravity-driven mass flows.
 Turbidity currents and debris flows transport sediment down the continental slope and out
on to the ocean floor to form aprons and fans of deposits.
 Towards the basin centre terrigenous clastic detritus is limited to wind-blown dust,
including volcanic ash and fine particulate matter held in temporary suspension in ocean
currents.
 The surface waters are rich in life but below the photic zone organisms are rarer and on the
deep sea floor life is relatively sparse, apart from strange creatures around hydrothermal
vents.
 Organisms that live floating or swimming in the oceans provide a source of sediment in the
form of their shells and skeletons when they die.
 These sources of pelagic detritus are present throughout the oceans, varying in quantity
according to the surface climate and related biogenic productivity.
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 Composition of deep marine deposits
 The detrital material in deep-water deposits is highly variable and directly reflects the
sediment source area.
 Sand, mud and gravel from a terrigenous source are most common, occurring offshore
continental margins that have a high supply from fluvial sources.
 Material that has had a short residence time on the shelf will be similar to the
composition of the river but extensive reworking by wave and tide processes can
modify both the texture and the composition of the sediment before it is redeposited as
a turbidite.
 A sandstone deposited by a turbidity current can vary from immature, lithic wacke to
a very mature quartz arenite.
 Turbidites composed wholly or partly of volcaniclastic material occur in seas offshore
of volcanic provinces.

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 Shallow Marine Depositional Environments
 The continental shelves and epicontinental seas are important sites of deposition of
sand and mud in the world’s oceans and account for over half the volume of ocean
sediments.

 These successions can be very thick, over 10,000 m, because deposition may be very
long-lived and can continue uninterrupted for tens of millions of years.

 They occur as largely undeformed strata around the edges of continents and also in
orogenic belts, where the collision of continental plates has forced beds deposited in
shallow marine environments high up into mountain ranges.

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 SHALLOW MARINE ENVIRONMENTS OF TERRIGENOUS CLASTIC DEPOSITION
 Sediment supply to shallow seas
 The supply of sediment to shelves is a fundamental control on shallow marine environments and
depositional facies of shelves and epicontinental seas.
 If the area lies adjacent to an uplifted continental region and there is a drainage pattern of rivers
delivering detritus to the coast, the shallow-marine sedimentation will be dominated by terrigenous
clastic deposits.
 The highest concentrations of clastic sediment will be near the mouths of major rivers: adjacent
coastal regions will also be supplied with sediment by longshore movement of material by waves,
storms and tides.
 Shallow seas that are not supplied by much terrigenous material may be areas of carbonate
sedimentation, especially if they are in lower latitudes where the climate is relatively warm.
 In cooler climates where carbonate production is slower, shelves and shallow seas with low
terrigenous sediment supply are considered to be starved.
 The rate of sediment accumulation is slow and may be exceeded by the rate of subsidence of the sea
floor such that the environment becomes gradually deeper with time.

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 Characteristics of Shallow Marine Sands
 Detritus that reaches a shallow sea is likely to have a history of transport in rivers, may have passed
through a delta or estuary, or could have been temporarily deposited along a coastline before it arrives
at the shelf.

 Long history of transport through these other environments the grain assemblage will be mature.

 Texturally, the grains of sand will have suffered a degree of abrasion and the processes of turbulent
flow during transport will separate the material into different grain sizes.

 The compositional maturity will be greater than the equivalent continental deposits, because the
more labile minerals and grains (such as feldspar and lithic fragments) are broken down during
transport: Shallow marine sands are commonly dominated by quartz grains.

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Figure 1.2.13. Characteristics of a storm-dominated shelf environment.

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 Shallow Marine Carbonate and Evaporite Environments
 Limestones are common and widespread sedimentary rocks that are mainly formed in
shallow marine depositional environments.
 Most of the calcium carbonate that makes up limestone comes from biological sources.
 The accumulation of sediment in carbonate-forming environments is largely controlled
by factors that influence the types and abundances of organisms that live in them.
 Water depth, temperature, salinity, nutrient availability and the supply of terrigenous
clastic material all influence carbonate deposition and the build up of successions of
limestones.
 Some depositional environments are created by organisms
 For example, reefs built up by sedentary colonial organisms such as corals.
 Changes in biota through geological time have also played an important role in
determining the characteristics of shallow-marine sediments through the stratigraphic
record.

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 Contd’
 Features of shallow marine carbonate environments distinct from terrigenous clastic
depositional settings.
 Largely composed of sedimentary material that has formed in situ (in place), mainly by
biological processes
 The grain size of the material deposited is determined by the biological processes that
generate the material, not by the strength of wave or current action, although these
processes may result in breakup of clasts during reworking.

 The biological processes can determine the characteristics of the environment, principally in
places where reef formation strongly controls the distribution of energy regimes.

 The production of carbonate material by organisms is rapid and occurs at rates that can
keep pace with changes in water depth due to tectonic subsidence or eustatic sea-level rises.

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 Controls on Carbonate Sedimentation
 Areas of shallow marine carbonate sedimentation are known as carbonate platforms.
 Occur in a wide variety of climatic and tectonic settings provided that two main
conditions are met:
 Isolation from clastic supply and
 Shallow marine waters.

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Figure 1.2.14.The relationship between water depth and biogenic carbonate productivity, which is greatest in the photic zone.

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 Controls on Evaporite sedimentation
 Precipitation of evaporate minerals, principally calcium sulphates
(Gypsum and Anhydrite) and Sodium Chloride (Halite), occurs where
bodies of seawater become wholly or partially isolated from the open ocean
under arid conditions.
 The fundamental controlling factor in the formation of evaporite deposits
is climate, because the seawater can become sufficiently concentrated for
precipitation to occur only if the rate of loss through evaporation exceeds
the input of water.
 Arid environments are principally found in subtropical regions where the
mean annual temperatures are relatively high but the rainfall is low.

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Figure 1.2.16. Different groups of organisms have been important producers of carbonate sedimentary material
through the Phanerozoic; limestones of different ages therefore tend to have different biogenic components.

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 Carbonate Grain Types and Assemblages
 The relative abundance of different carbonate-forming organisms has varied
considerably though time, so, in contrast to terrigenous clastic facies in shallow
marine environments, the characteristics of shallow marine carbonate facies
depend on the time period in which they were deposited.
 E.g. The absence of abundant shelly organisms in the Precambrian means that
carbonate facies from this time are markedly different from Phanerozoic deposits in
that they lack bioclastic components.

 The skeletal grain associations that occur on carbonate platforms are temperature
and salinity dependent.
 Ooids are most commonly associated with chlorozoan and chloralgal assemblages.

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 Classification of marine sediments
4-1 based on size or origin
 Size classification divides sediment by grain size into gravel, sand, silt and
clay.

 Origin classification divides sediment into five categories:

 Terrigenous sediments,
 Biogenic sediments,
 Authigenic sediments,
 Volcanogenic sediments and
 Cosmogenic sediments.

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 Sediment4-1in the Sea
 Factors that control sedimentation include particle size
and the turbulence of the depositional environment.
 Terrigenous sediments strongly reflect their source and are transported to
the sea by wind, rivers and glaciers.
 Rate of erosion is important in determining nature of sediments.
 Average grain size reflects the energy of the depositional environment.

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 4-2
Sedimentation in the Ocean
 Ocean environment can be divided into:

The shelf (is shallow and near a terrigenous source)

The deep ocean basin is deep and far from a

terrigenous source)

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Figure 1.2.17. Shelf Versus Basin Depths of shallow marine depositional environment

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 Sedimentation4-2
in the Ocean

 Shelf sedimentation is strongly controlled by tides, waves and

currents, but their influence decreases with water depth.
 Shoreline turbulence prevents small particles from settling and
transports them seaward where they are deposited in deeper
water.
 Particle size decreases seaward for recent sediments.
 Past fluctuations of sea level have stranded coarse sediment (relict
sediment) across the shelf including most areas where only fine
sediments are deposited today.

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Figure 1.2.18. Model Prediction of Shelf Sediments

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Figure 1.2.19. Figure showing Influence of Past Sea
Level on marine sedimentation

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Figure 1.2.20. Figure showing how Relict Sediments occur

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 Sedimentation4-2in the Ocean
 Worldwide distribution of recent shelf sediments by composition is
strongly related to latitude and climate.

 Calcareous biogenic sediments dominate tropical shelves.

 River-supplied sands and muds dominate temperate shelves.
 Glacial till and ice-rafted sediments dominate polar shelves.

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Figure 1.2.21. Shelf Sedimentation Model

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 4-2

 Geologic controls of continental shelf sedimentation must be considered

in terms of a time frame.
 For a time frame up to 1000 years, waves, currents and tides
control sedimentation.
 For a time frame up to 1,000,000 years, sea level lowered by
glaciation controlled sedimentation and caused rivers to deposit
their sediments at the shelf edge and onto the upper continental
slope.
 For a time frame up to 100,000,000 years, plate tectonics has
determined the type of margin that developed and controlled
sedimentation.

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 Figure 1.2.22. Figure depicting Carbonate shelve depositional environments

 If influx of terrigenous sediment is low and the water is warm, carbonate sediments
and reefs will dominate.
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 Sedimentation in the Ocean
4-2
Deep-sea Sedimentation has two main sources of sediment: external- terrigenous material from
the land and internal-biogenic and authigenic from the sea.

Red Clays:
Kaolinite
Chlorite
Quartz
Feldspar

Figure 1.2.23. Sedimentation in the Deep Sea

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 4-2
Sedimentation in the Ocean
 Major sedimentary processes in the deep sea include:, Bulk
emplacement, Debris flows, Turbidity currents

 Major pelagic sediments in the ocean are red clay and biogenic oozes.

 Authigenic deposits are chemical and biochemical precipitates that form

on the sea floor and include ferromanganese nodules and Phosphorite.

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Copyright © 2014 All rights reserved, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
 Biogenic Deposits

Silica Carbonate

SiO2 CaCO3

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Figure 1.2.30. Figure showing Authigenic Deposits at global scale

from precipitation of metal oxides

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 Distribution of sediments
4-2 in the deep ocean
1) Latitude
2) Distance from landmasses
3) CCD (Carbonate Compensation Depth)
 Glacial marine sediments occur in the high latitudes.
 Pelagic clays occur far from land and in the deepest water.
 Calcareous oozes occur above the calcium carbonate
composition depth.
 The rate of sedimentation depends on the type of sediment in
deep sea.

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Copyright © 2014 All rights reserved, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
Copyright © 2014 All rights reserved, Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
 Sedimentation in the Ocean
4-2

 Deep-sea stratigraphy refers to the broad-scale layering of sediments that

cover the basaltic crust.

 The stratigraphy of the deep sea is strongly influenced by sea-floor

spreading.

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