Research Methods and Evaluation

Chapter Two
Research Process

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 1

• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to
effectively carry out research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
• The research process described in the following section is a very
generalized model of carrying out research.
• In reality, the process is much less 'neat', and you will generally find
that you will not usually follow the process stage by stage, but will
often move continually back and forth between the elements, or carry
out two or more of the elements.
• concurrently, especially if you are undertaking a more Interpretative or
qualitative study
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 2
• Although different models of the research process exist, each
containing different numbers of stages, most include the same
general elements.
• One should remember that the various steps involved in a research
process are not mutually exclusive; nor they are separate and distinct.
They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and
the researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the
research process the requirements of the subsequent steps.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 3

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research
problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the
researcher must single out the problem he wants to study
• He/she must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a
subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the problem
may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any,
relating to the problem be resolved.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 4

• Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered
before a working formulation of the problem can be set up.
• The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem,
thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing
the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
• The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s
own colleagues or with those having some expertise in the matter. In
an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide
who is usually an experienced man and has several research problems
in mind

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 5

• The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature
to get himself acquainted with the selected problem.
• You may review two types of literature—the conceptual literature
concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed.
• The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for
that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant ones.
• Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity of
the background facts concerning the problem.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 6

2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary
of it should be written down.
• At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing
journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go
to.
• Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.,
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it
should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies,
if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied.
• A good library/internet resources will be a great help to the researcher at this
stage.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 7

• Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature
survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis
or hypotheses.
• Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw
out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
• As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research.
• They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the
analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for
the analysis
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 8
• In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis
plays an important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and
limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the
area of research and to keep him on the right track.
• It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important
facets of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and
the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
• How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer
is by using the following approach:

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 9

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin
and the objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem
for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with
a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 10

• Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about
the subject, examination of the available data and material including
related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
• Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and
clearly defined terms.
• It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a
problem where we do not need working hypotheses, specially in the
case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim at
testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working
hypotheses in another basic step of the research process in most
research problems

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 11

• 4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been
formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted.
• The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient
as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function
of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence
with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money
• Once the focused research question has been ascertained, the next
stage is to consider "two questions:
1 What data do I need to collect to answer this question?
2 What is the best way to collect this data?
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 12
• Breaking this down into more detail, the issues faced by the researcher are:
What overall research design should I use?
• Will I, for example, use a cross sectional, experimental or longitudinal
design?
• Will I need to collect primary data, or will there be suitable secondary data
to use?
• What methods, for example interviews, questionnaire surveys and so on,
will be the best ones to collect the primary data?
• Who should participate in the research, and how will I gain access to them?
• What are the exact procedures that I should adopt in my data collection to
ensure reliability and validity?

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 13

5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any
field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete
enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census
inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items
are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained.
• Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger
and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there
is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through
a resurvey or use of sample checks.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 14

• Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and
energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under
many circumstances.
• For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite
often we select only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes.
• The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
• The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design.
• In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before
any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given
population.
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 15
• Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
• With probability samples each element has a known probability of
being included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not
allow the researcher to determine this probability.
• Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling
whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgment sampling and quota sampling techniques.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 16

1. Deliberate/porpusive sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as
purposive or non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves
purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of
access, it can be called convenience sampling.
• If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say, gasoline buyers, he may
select a fixed number of petrol stations because of easy access and may
conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of
convenience sample of gasoline buyers.
• At times such a procedure may give very biased results particularly when
the population is not homogeneous.
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 17
• Judgment sampling the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting
items/subjects which he considers as representative of the
population . For example, a judgment sample of college students
might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching.
• Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research
where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to
generalize to larger populations.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 18

2. Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as
chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in
the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each
one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
• For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a
universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of
all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery method

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 19

3. Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of
sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one
side of a street and so on.
• Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
• An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling
by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
• This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a
list.
• In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random
point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired
number is secured.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 20

4. Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be
drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified
sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample.
• In this technique, the population heterogeneity is stratified into a
number of non over lapping subpopulations or strata and sample
items are selected from each stratum.
• If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random
sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple
random sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 21

5. Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random
samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers
are simply given quota/share to be filled from different strata, the
actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s
judgment. This is called quota sampling.
The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the
size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is thus an
important form of non-probability sampling.
Quota samples generally happen to be Judgment samples rather than
random samples.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 22

6. Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping
the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than
individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about
when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one.
• Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of
smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters,
then a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units
in these small areas are included in the sample.
• Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the
population concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient
since interviewer can do many interviews at each location.
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 23
7. Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of
cluster sampling.
This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably
large geographical area like an entire country.
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large
primary sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and
finally certain families within towns.
If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 24

8. Sequential / item by item sampling: This is somewhat a complex
sample design where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in
advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the
basis of information produced as survey progresses.
• In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may
well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed
sampling.
• Without going into the sampling details, sequential sampling uses the
underlying question of “can I make a decision if I stop right now?
• Sequential sampling is a non-probabilistic sampling technique,
initially developed as a tool for product quality control

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 25

• But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe/
population happens to be small and a known characteristic of it is to
be studied intensively.
• Also, there are conditions under which sample designs other than
random sampling may be considered better for reasons like
convenience and low costs.
• The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher
taking into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related
factors.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 26

 Snowball/chain sampling, chain-referral
sampling, referral sampling
• Technique where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from
among their acquaintances. Thus the sample group is said to grow like
a rolling snowball.
• As the sample builds up, enough data are gathered to be useful for
research. This sampling technique is often used in hidden populations,
shoplifting, drug users or prostitution, which are difficult for
researchers to access.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 27

6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often
found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes
necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of money costs, energy, time and other
resources at the disposal of the researcher.
• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through
survey.
• If the researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some
quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
• But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more
of the following ways:
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 28
1. By observation: This method implies the collection of information
by way of investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the
respondents. The information obtained relates to what is currently
happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or
future intentions or attitudes of respondents.
2. Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid
procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions
through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability
of the interviewer to a large extent.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 29

3. Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used
method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions,
particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.
4. By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in
contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted.
• Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after
completing the same.
• It is the most widely used method in various economic and business surveys.
• Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire
is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may prove
to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 30

5. Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are
appointed and given training.
• They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are
collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of
replies given by respondents.
• Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this
method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of
the enumerators may ensure truthful work.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 31

 Types of research questions
• The research question will lead directly to the hypothesis that you
formulate.
•  The research question that you choose to explore will help you design
your study or experiment that will provide you with data.  
• It will guide how you interpret the data to see if you answered your
question, or if it leads you to other questions.
•  Finally, the research question will frame the way you report your findings
to your audience.  
• Because it is such an important part of the process, it is important to put
a great deal of time and effort into constructing a quality research
question.  
• The study or experiment conducted will only be as good as the research
question that was asked.
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 32
 1. The Descriptive Question
• As the name suggests, the descriptive question describes conditions
that are happening or characteristics that exist.  
• Answering a descriptive question relies a great deal on the
observational skills of the researcher.
• The researcher may even have to employ unusual observational tools
or techniques to gather their information. Through these skills, it is
hoped to discover something that has never been described before.
• Example:
• What are the products created from the digestion of lactose?
• What environment factors cause pill bugs to employ their survival
techniques?

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 33

 2. Observational-Relational Question
• Examines the question of whether two or more variables effect, or do
not effect, each other under a given set of circumstances.  
• Example:
• If two orbiting objects are traveling at the same speed, does that necessarily
mean that they are being acted upon with the same amount of gravitational
force?
• If two cattle are kept under similar conditions and are fed the same amount
of cattle feed, will they reliably and predictably gain the same amount of
weight? h other under a given set of circumstances.  

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 34

 3. Causal and effect Question
• Cause and Effect Attempts to determine if changing one variable in a
known and or contained habitat has a measurable effect on another
variable or set of variables within that same area or habitat.
• Example:
• Does an increase in the average temperature in their environmental
niche effect the start date of the annual southerly migration of ruby throated
hummingbirds?
• Does the total mass of a sample of sodium effect the speed at which it
completely reacts with water?

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 35

 The Research report
• Title and preliminary pages
• Abstract
• Introduction
Statement of the problem
Objective(General and specific)
Research question or Hypothesis
Scope
Limitation of the study
Significance or benefit of the study

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 36

• Related Litrater review (bothe conceptual and empirical )
• Methodology
Research design
Population
Sampling and Sampling technique/s
 Data collection methods
Types of data
Method of Data analysis
Ethical considerations

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 37

• Data analysis
Tables
Figures
Charts
Histograms
Bar charts
Frequencies
Inferences
Percentages
Discussion

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 38

• Conclusion
• Recommendation
• References/Bibliographies
• Appendices (sample observation check list, questionnaire, sem-
istractured or structured interview, detailed experiment results,
ethical clearance letters or licenses)

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 39

Evaluation criteria of research paper
• Most of the time the weight is given for the contents of the paper as discussed above
ORGANIZATION
Language (Grammar, sentences fragmentation, typographic errors)
The topic under investigation is defined; The questions/hypotheses are defined.
Sufficient background information is provided to allow a broad scientific
audience (not just a specialized audience) to understand the questions,
methodology, results, conclusions and significance.
The experimental approach is adequately described and the motivation for each
experiment is provided; The data/findings are clearly described.
The talk progresses in a logical order; transitions between sections are clear.
The conclusions are summarized and limitations/future directions are outlined.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 40

 Presentations
VISUAL PRESENTATION
Slides contain simple declarative/informative titles.
Text is used sparingly to convey major points; where text is used, it should be
brief and just contain key concepts (i.e., not necessarily complete sentences);
long lists are avoided.
Font size appropriate for viewers sitting in the back of the room.
Good contrast between text and slide background color.
Wherever possible, figures or diagrams are used to convey concepts.
Figures and diagrams are kept as simple as possible and should lack distracting
features that are not addressed.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 41

DELIVERY
Speech is clearly pronounced.
Disfluencies are avoided (eg., uh, um, like, etc.)
Volume of speech is appropriate for listeners at the back of the room.
Good eye contact with audience is maintained.
Terminology is used consistently throughout the presentation.
Slide text is not read word-for-word.
Figures and diagrams are adequately discussed.
Questions are repeated to the audience and effectively addressed.
Speech is connected with the visual information (i.e., using a laser pointer).
Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 42
 Citation

• A "citation" is the way you tell your readers that certain material in
your work came from another source. It also gives your readers the
information necessary to find that source again, including:
information about the author, title, year of publication, publisher, may
be website resources, ISBN or ISSN, volume… etc.

Compiled by Workineh T. (Assist Prof) 43