Intersection Control/

Signal Timing for Different Color

Indications

Chapter 8

Dr. TALEB AL-ROUSAN

 Signal Timing for Different Color
Indications/ Definitions
 Efficient operation of the signal requires
proper timing of different color indications.
 Controller: A device in a traffic signal
installation that changes the color indicated
by the signal lamp according to a fixed or
variable plan.
 Cycle length: the time in seconds required
for one complete color sequence of signal
indication (the time that elapses from the
start of green to the end of red indication).
 See Figure 8.7.
 Definitions Cont.
 Phase (Signal Phase): that part of a cycle
allocated to a stream of traffic, or
combination of two or more streams, having
the right-of-way simultaneously during one
or more intervals (see Figure 8.7).
 Interval: Any part of the cycle length during
which signal indications do not change.
 Offset: the time lapse in seconds or the
percentage of the cycle length between the
beginning of a green phase at the
intersection and the beginning of a
corresponding green phase at the next
intersection.
 Definitions Cont.
 Change and Clearance Interval: Total
length of time in seconds of the yellow and
all-red signal indication. This time is
provided for vehicles to clear the
intersection after green interval before
conflicting movements are released.
 All-Red Interval: The display time of a
red indication for all approaches. Used
some times as a phase exclusively for
pedestrians crossing or to allow vehicles
and pedestrians to clear very large
intersections before opposing approaches
are given the green indication.
 Definitions Cont.
 Split-Phase: Part of a phase that is set apart from
the primary movement, thus forming a special phase
that relates to the parent phase.
 Peak-Hour Factor (PHF): Is a measure of the
variability of demand during the peak hour. It is the
ratio of the volume during the peak hour to the
maximum rate of flow during a given time period
within the peak hour.
 PHF = (volume during peak hour / 4 X volume
during peak 15 minutes within peak hour).
 PHF may be used in signal timing design to
compensate for the possibility that peak arrival rates
for short periods during the peak hour may be much
higher than the average for the full hour.
 Definitions Cont.
 Design Hour Volume (DHV)
 DHV = (Peak-Hour Volume / PHF)
 Lane Group: Consist of one or more lanes
on an intersection approach and having the
same green phase. (see Figure 8.8 for
typical lane groups).
 Critical Lane Group: Is the lane group
that requires the longest green time in a
phase.
 Saturation Flow Rate (S): The flow rate
in (veh/h) that the lane group can carry if it
has the green indication continuously (i.e. if
g/C =1).
 Saturation Flow rate
 The saturation flow rate (S) depends on an ideal saturation
flow (So = 1900 veh/h of green time per lane).
 The ideal saturation flow is then adjusted for the prevailing
conditions to obtain the saturation flow for the lane group being
considered.
 The adjustment is made by introducing factors that correct for:
 The number of lanes.
 Lane width.
 % of heavy vehicles.
 Approach grade.
 Parking activity.
 Local buses stopping within the intersection.
 Area type.
 Lane utilization factor.
 Right and left turns.
 Highway Capacity Manual provides an equation to compute
saturation flow rate.
 Saturation Flow rate Cont.
S =So N fW fHV fg fp fbb fa fLU fLT fRT fLpb fRpb
S = saturation flow rate for the subject lane group, expressed as a total for
all lanes in the lane group (veh/h)
So= Base saturation flow rate per lane (pc/h/ln)
N= number of lanes in the group.
fW = adjustment factor for lane width.
fHV = adjustment factor for heavy vehicles.
fg = adjustment factor for approach grade.
fp = adjustment factor for existing of parking lane or parking activity
adjacent to lane group.
fbb = adjustment factor for blocking effect of bus stops within the
intersection area.
fa = adjustment factor for area type.
fLU = adjustment factor for Lane Utilization.
fLT = adjustment factor for left turns in the lane group.
fRT = adjustment factor for right turns in the lane group.
fLpb = pedestrian adjustment factor for left-turn movements
fRpb = pedestrian adjustment factor for right-turn movements.
 Main Objectives of Signal Timing
1. Reduce average delay of all vehicles.
2. Reduce probability of crashes.
 These objectives are achieved by minimizing the possible
conflict points when assigning the right of way to different
traffic streams at different times.
 The objective of reducing delay some time conflict with
that of reducing crashes.
 Number of phases should be kept min. to reduce delay.
 Need more phases to separate traffic streams.
 In such cases, Engineering judgment should be used to
determine a compromise solution.
 Try to adapt a two-phase system whenever possible, using
shortest practical cycle length that is consistent with the
demand.
 At complex intersections it may be necessary to use a
multi-phase system to achieve the main design objectives.
 Traffic Signal Types
1. Pre-Timed Signals.
 Fixed Timing Patterns.
 Used for predictable and constant traffic.
2. Semi-Actuated Signals.
 Detectors only on minor approaches.
 Used for unpredictable and fluctuated traffic.
3. Fully Actuated Signals.
 Detectors on all approaches.
 Used for unpredictable and fluctuated traffic.
4. Volume-Density Signals
 Detectors on all approaches with early detection
required.
 Used for unpredictable and fluctuated traffic.
 Signal Timing At Isolated
Intersections
 Isolated Intersection: Is the one in which the signal
time is not coordinated with that of any other
intersection and therefore operates independently.
 Cycle length of this type should be short (35 to 60
seconds).
 When approach volumes are very high, longer cycle
lengths can be used.
 Cycle lengths should be kept below (120 seconds)
since very long cycle lengths will result in excessive
delays.
 Methods to find optimum cycle length are:
 Webster method.
 Highway Capacity method.
 Cycle failure method.
 Yellow Interval
 In most methods used to find the optimum cycle length,
yellow is considered as component of the green time.
 Main purpose of yellow indication:
 Alert motorists that green light is about to change to red.
 Allow vehicles already in the intersection to cross it.
 Bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of
dilemma zone.
 Dilemma Zone: An area close to an intersection in
which a vehicle can neither stop safely before the
intersection nor clear the intersection without speeding
before the red signal come on.
 The required Yellow interval is the time period that
guarantees that an approaching vehicle can either stop
safely or proceed through the intersection without
speeding.
 See Figure 8.9.
 Yellow Interval Cont.
 For dilemma zone to be eliminated Xo distance should
be equal to Xc.
 Let
  min = yellow interval in (sec.)
 Uo ( min )= distance traveled during the change
interval without accelerating.
 Uo = speed limit on approach (ft/sec)
Xc = Uo ( min ) - (W + L) ……………… Equ. (1)
 Xc= distance within which a vehicle traveling at the
speed (Uo) during the yellow interval ( min ) cannot
stop before encroaches on the intersection.
 Vehicles within this distance at the start of the yellow
interval will have to go through the intersection.
 W = Width of the intersection (ft).
 L = Length of vehicle (ft).
 Yellow Interval Cont.
 For vehicle to be able to stop
Xo = Uo  + (Uo 2/2a) ………… Equ. (2)
 Xo = min. distance from the intersection for which a
vehicle traveling at the speed limit (Uo) during the
clearance interval( min ) can not go through the
intersection without accelerating. Any vehicle at this
distance or greater has to stop.
  = perception reaction time (sec)
 a = constant rate of braking deceleration ( 11.2
ft/sec2)
 For dilemma zone to be eliminated Xo = Xc
 Equaling equations 1 & 2 yields:
 Yellow Interval Cont.
 For vehicle to be able to stop

 min =  +[(W + L)/ Uo] + [Uo / 2(a + Gg)]

G= grade of the approach.

g= acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2).
 Safety considerations preclude yellow intervals of less
than (3 sec.)
 To encourage motorists’ respect for the yellow interval
, it is usually not made longer than (5 sec.)
 When longer yellow intervals are required an all-red
phase can be inserted to follow the yellow indication.
 The change interval, (yellow + all-red) phase can be at
least the value computed from the equation above.
Cycle Lengths Of Fixed (Pre-timed)
Signals
 The signals at isolated intersections can be
pre-timed (fixed), semi-actuated, or fully
actuated.
 Pre-timed signals assign the right of way to
different traffic streams in accordance with
a preset timing program.
 Each signal has a preset cycle length that
remains fixed for a specific period of the
day or for the entire day.
Cycle Lengths Of Fixed (Pre-timed)
Signals/ WEBSTER Method
 Minimum intersection delay is obtained when the cycle
length is obtained by :

Co = [(1.5 L + 5)/ (1 – SUM i- Yi)]

Co = optimum cycle length (sec).

L = total lost time per cycle (sec).
Yi = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to
saturation flows for all lane groups using phase (i) (i.e.
qij/Sj).
 = number of phases
qij =flow on lane groups (1…j) having the right of way
during phase (i).
Sj = saturation flow on lane group (j).
WEBSTER Method/ Total Lost Time
 See Figure 8.10.
 Some time is lost before the vehicles start
moving (start of green).
 Some time is lost too at the end of the
amber (yellow phase) before turning to red.
 The maximum rate of discharge = saturation
flow.
 if there are sufficient vehicles in the queue
to use the available green time, the
maximum rate of discharge will be sustained
until the yellow phase occur.
 Rate of discharge will then fall to zero when
yellow signal changes to red.
WEBSTER Method/ Total Lost Time
 WEBSTER Method/ Total Lost Time
 The number of vehicles that go through the
intersection is represented by the area
under the curve.
 Effective green time = (Number of vehicle
that go through the intersection / Saturation
flow)
 Effective green time < (green + yellow)
times
 The difference is considered lost time, since
it is not used by any other phase for the
discharge of vehicles.
WEBSTER Method/ Total Lost Time
Li = Gai +  i - Gei
Li = lost time for phase (i) (sec)
Gai = actual green time for phase (i) not
including yellow time (sec).
Gei = Effective green time for phase (i) (sec).
 i = yellow time for phase (i) (sec).

L = (SUM Li )i - + R

R = All-red time during the cycle.

 WEBSTER Method/ Allocation Of
Green Time
 Total effective green time available per cycle is given by:

Cte= C – L = C- [(SUM Li )i - + R]

C= actual cycle length used (usually obtained by rounding off Co

to the nearest 5 sec.)
 To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green
time should be distributed among the different phases in
proportion to their (Y) values to obtain the effective green
time for each phase.

Gei = ( Yi/ (Y1 + Y2 + … Y)) (Gte)

 The actual green time for each phase is obtained as:

Gai = Gei + Li -  i
WEBSTER Method/ Minimum Green
Time
 At intersection where significant number of
pedestrians cross, it is necessary to provide
a minimum green time that will allow the
pedestrians to safely cross the intersection.
 The length of this minimum green time may
be higher than that needed for vehicular
traffic to go through the intersection.
 The green time for traffic moving in the
North-South direction should not be less
than the green time required for pedestrians
to cross the East-West approach at the
intersection, and visversa.
WEBSTER Method/ Minimum Green
Time

Gp = 3.2 + (L /Sp) + [2.7(Nped/We)]

For We > 10ft

Gp = 3.2 + (L /Sp) + [0.27(Nped)]

For We > 10ft

Gp = minimum green time (sec).

L = cross walk length (ft).
Sp = average speed of pedestrians (4 ft/sec).
(3.2) = pedestrian start up time (sec).
We = effective cross walk width (ft).
Nped = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval.
Traffic Signal Timing Procedure
1. Select Signal Phasing.
2. Calculate the equivalent straight-through
passenger cars.
3. Select critical lane volumes.
4. Calculate change interval.
5. Calculate minimum cycle length.
6. Allocate green time.
7. Check pedestrian crossing time.
8. Prepare a signal indication summary.
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
1. Select Signal Phasing
 Try to keep number of phases to
minimum as more phases increase
lost time.
 See Figure 8.13 for different phase
plans.
 Separated protected left-turn phases
should only be used when warranted.
P
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 Determination of Left Turn
Treatment
 Left turn vehicles at signalized intersections
can proceed under one of three signal
conditions:
 Permitted turning movements.
 Protected turning movements.
 protected/ permissive turning movements.
 Determination of specific treatment at a
location depends on the transportation
jurisdiction.
 HCM suggests guidelines for providing
protected left turn treatment.
Permitted Left Turn Movements
 Are those made within gaps of an
opposing traffic stream or through a
conflicting pedestrian flow.
 The suitability of the permitted left
turn depends on:
 The geometric characteristics of the
intersection.
 The turning volume.
 The opposing volume.
Protected Left Turn Movements
 Are those turns protected from any conflict with
vehicles in an opposing stream or pedestrians on a
conflicting crosswalk.
 Takes less time and will use less time of the available
green time than permitted turns.
 When a protected left turn phase is provided, an
exclusive left turn lane must be provided.
 The length of this storage lane should be adequate for
the turning volume so that the safety or capacity of
the approach is not negatively affected.
 Length of the left turn lane can be determined from
Figure 8.12 and Table 8.4.
 Protected/Permissive Left Turn
Movements
 Is a combination of the protected or
permissive conditions.
 Vehicles are first allowed to make left
turn under protected condition and
then allowed to make left turns
under the permissive conditions.
 HCM Guidelines For Providing
Protected Left Turn Treatment (Phase)
1. When two or more left turn lanes are on the
approach.
2. When Left turn unadjusted volume is higher than 240
veh/h.
3. When cross product of unadjusted left turn volume and
the opposing main line volume (including the right turn
volume) exceed:
 [50,000] for # of through lanes = 1
 [90,000] for # of through lanes = 2
 [110,000] for # of through lanes = 3
4. If the left turn equivalent factor is (3.5) or higher. This
factor is used to convert left turning vehicles to
equivalent straight through vehicles. This factor value
depends on the type of phasing (permitted.
Protected,..), type of lane (exclusive or shared),
proportion of left turn vehicle in a shared lane, and
opposing flow when permitted turn is used.
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
2. Calculate The Equivalent Straight-
Through Passenger Cars

Adjustment factor for equivalent straight-

through passenger cars
Adjustment Factor Vehicle Type & Movement
1.0 Passenger car (Straight-
Through)
1.5 Heavy Vehicle
1.6 Left-turning
1.4 Right-turning
Note: You might need to convert the peak hour volumes into
design hour volumes by dividing the adjusted volumes by the
PHF
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
3. Select Critical-Lane Volume
 For each phase find the lane group with highest
volume (critical lane volume).
 Distribution of traffic over lanes is best done by
traffic surveys.
 If surveys are not available, the amount of traffic in
the most heavily used lane in the approach (critical-
lane volume) can be approximated as the total
approach volume multiplied by a critical lane factor.
 For through lanes or shared through and turning
lanes the factor = 0.525 for two lane approach and
= 0.367 for three lane approach.
 For two-lane exclusive left turn approach = 0.515
 For two-lane exclusive right turn approach = 0.565
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
4. Calculate Change Interval
 Change interval = yellow + all-red.
 min =  +[(W + L)/ Uo] + [Uo / 2(a + Gg)]
 Yellow Time =  + [Uo / 2(a + Gg)]
 All-Red = [(W + L)/ Uo]
 Yellow time = 3 -5 sec.
  min = yellow interval in (sec.)
 Uo = speed limit on approach (ft/sec)
 W = Width of the intersection (ft).
 L = Length of vehicle (ft).
  = Driver perception reaction time (1.0 sec)
 a = constant rate of braking deceleration ( 11.2
ft/sec2).
 G= grade of the approach.
 g= acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2).
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
5. Calculate Minimum Cycle Length
 Cycle length is the summation of individual phases.
 Cycle lengths From 40 -60 sec and at max of 120 sec.
 Cycles > 120 sec and unusual and used in exceptional
cases.
Co = [(1.5 L + 5)/ (1 – SUM i- Yi)]

Co = optimum cycle length (sec) rounded to the nearest 5 sec.

L = total lost time per cycle (sec) = total yellow and all-red
times/cycle.
Yi = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation
flows for all lane groups using phase (i) (i.e. qij/Sj). Or ratio of
critical lane volume to the per lane saturation flow for signal
phase i.
 = number of phases
qij =flow on lane groups (1…j) having the right of way during phase
(i).
Sj = saturation flow on lane group (j).
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
6. Allocate Green Time
 Total effective green time available per cycle is given by:
Cte= C – L = C- [(SUM Li )i - + R]
 the total effective green time should be distributed among
the different phases in proportion to their (Y) values to
obtain the effective green time for each phase.
 Or distributed to each phase in proportion to the ratio of
critical lane volume of the phase to summation of all
crirtical lane volumes of all phases.

Gei = ( Yi/ (Y1 + Y2 + … Y)) (Gte)

 The actual green time for each phase is obtained as:

Gai = Gei + Li -  i
 Traffic Signal Timing Procedure/
7. Check Pedestrian Crossing Time
Gp = 3.2 + (L /Sp) + [2.7(Nped/We)]
For We > 10ft

Gp = 3.2 + (L /Sp) + [0.27(Nped)]

For We > 10ft

Gp = minimum green time (sec).

L = cross walk length (ft).
Sp = average speed of pedestrians (4 ft/sec).
(3.2) = pedestrian start up time (sec).
We = effective cross walk width (ft).
Nped = number of pedestrians crossing during an interval.
 Or
PGT = 7 + (w/PWS) – YT - AR
PGT= pedestrians green time, w= width of street, PWS = pedestrian
walking speed, YT = yellow time, AR = all red time.
Signal Timing Of Arterial Routes
 In urban areas the signals should be timed so that
when a queue of vehicles is released by receiving the
right of way (green) at an intersection, these vehicles
should also have the right of way at the adjacent
intersection.
 This is needed to reduce delay.
 All intersections should have the same cycle lengths.
 In rare instances, some intersections might have half or
twice the common cycle length.
 Common cycle length is usually set with an offset that is
suitable for main street.
 Traffic conditions at a given intersection are used to
determine the appropriate phases of green, yellow, and
red.
 Signal Timing Of Arterial Routes
.Cont
The methods used to achieve the required
coordination are:
 Simultaneous system
 Alternate system
 Progressive system
 Speed of Progression: speed at which a
platoon of vehicles released at an intersection
will proceed along the arterial (usually taken
as the mean operating speed = distance
between traffic signals/ corresponding travel
time).
 Simultaneous System
 All signals along a given arterials have the same cycle
length and have the green phase showing at the same
time,
 When given the right of way, all vehicles move at the
same time along the arterial and stop at the nearest
signalized intersection when the right of way is given
to the side street.
U = X/ (1.47 C)
U= progression speed (mi/h)
C= Cycle length (sec)
X= average spacing for signals (ft)
 Alternate System
 Intersections on the arterials are formed into groups of one or
more adjacent intersections.
 Signals are then set such that successive group of signals are
given the right of way alternately
 Single alternate: when groups are made of individual signals.
 Double alternate: when groups are made up of two adjacent
signals.
U = (n X)/ (1.47 C)
U= progression speed (mi/h)
C= Cycle length (sec)
X= average spacing for signals (ft)
n= 2 for simple-alternate sys.
n= 4 for double-alternate sys.
n= 6 for triple-alternate sys.
 Alternate system is most effective when the intersections are
at equal distances from each other
 Progressive System
 Provides for a continuous flow of traffic through all
intersections under the system when traffic moves at the
speed of progression.
 The same cycle length is used for all intersections, but the
green indication for each succeeding intersection is offset
by a given time from that of the preceding intersection
depending on:
 Distance from preceding intersection.
 Speed of progression for that section of the street.
 Limited or simple progressive system: when the offset and
cycle length are fixed.
 Flexible progressive system: when the offset and cycle
length can be changed to meet demands of fluctuating
traffic at different times of the day.
 Design Of Progressive Signal
System
 Design involves the selection of best cycle length (C) using the
criterion that the speed of progression is approximately equal to
the mean operating speed of vehicles on the arterial street.
 The selection is based on trial and error procedure.
U = X/ (1.47 C)
U= progression speed (mi/h)
C= Cycle length (sec)
X= average spacing for signals (ft)
 In addition, required cycle length for each intersection should be
computed and compared to obtained cycle length found above.
 If (C) is approximately equal to cycle length for majority of
intersections, it can be selected on a trial bases.
 However, it is a usual practice to use cycle lengths that have
been established for intersecting or adjacent systems as guides
for selecting a suitable cycle length.
 Mostly done by softwares.
 Freeway Ramps
 Ramps are usually part of grade-separated
intersections.
 Some times are constructed between two parallel
highways.
 Freeway ramps:
 Entrance ramps
 Exit Ramps
 Access to the entrance or exit ramps is controlled,
when necessary, in order to control number of
vehicles entering or leaving a freeway.
 This can be achieved by:
 Closure : by using (Don not enter) signs or barriers.
 Simple metering: by pre-timed signal with short cycle.
 Traffic response metering.
 Integrated system control
 The Highway Capacity Method
 Determine the cycle length based on the capacity (the
maximum flow based on the available effective green time) of
a lane group.
 Since the saturation flow rate is the max. flow rate on an
approach or lane group when 100% effective green time is
available, the capacity of an approach or lane group depends
on the percentage of the cycle length that is given to that
approach or lane group.
 Capacity of an approach or lane group is given by:
ci = Si (gi/C)
ci = capacity of lane group I (veh/h)
Si = saturation flow rate for lane group or approach i (veh/h of
green or veh/h/g).
(gi/C) = green ratio for lane group or approach i.
Gi = effective green for lane group or approach i.
C = Cycle length.
 The Highway Capacity Method
Cont.
 Ratio of flow to capacity (v/c) = degree of
saturation can be expressed as :
(v/c)i = Xi = [vi/ (Si (gi/C))]
Xi = (v/c) ratio for lane group or approach i.
Vi = actual flow rate for lane group or approach i.
Si = saturation flow rate for lane group or
approach i.
gi = effective green time for lane group or
approach i.
 The Highway Capacity Method
Cont.
 The critical (v/c) ratio is uaually obtained for the overall
intersection but considers only the critical lane groups or
approaches (those with max flow ratios (v/S) for each
signal phase).
 The critical (v/c) ratio for the whole intersection is given
by:
Xc = [SUM(V/S)ci] [C/(C-L)]
 Xc = Critical (v/c) ratio for the intersection.
 C = Cycle length (sec).
 SUM (v/S)ci = summation of the ratios of actual flows to
saturation flow for all critical lanes, groups, or
approaches.
 L = total lost time per cycle computed as the sum of the
lost time (tl) for each critical signal phase L = SUMtl.
 The Highway Capacity Method
Cont.
 This equation (Xc = ..) can be used to estimate the
signal timing for the intersection if a critical (v/c) ratio is
specified.
 This equation can also be used to obtain indicators on
sufficiency of the intersection by substituting the max
permitted cycle length and obtaining the critical (v/c)
ratio for the intersection.
 When (v/c) ratio < 1.00 then the cycle length provided is
adequate for all critical movements to go through the
intersection. If the green time is proportionately divided
among all phases.
 If green time is not properly allocated to different phases,
it is possible to have (v/c) ratio <1.0, but with one or
more individual oversaturated movements within a cycle.
 See Examples 8.6 & 8.7.