1

ANALOG AND DIGITAL

ELECTRONICS
18CS33
PROF. ANAND S. HIREMATH,
DEPT. OF CSE, BLDEA’S CET,
VIJAYAPUR
HTTP://ASHIREMATH.WORDPRESS.
COM

[email protected]
 Introduction
2

 Pre-requisite
 Basic Electrical Engineering (18ELE13/23)
 C programming For Problem Solving (18CSP13/23)
 Basic Electronics (18ELN14/24)
 Introduction
3

 Introduction to digital 1s and 0s

 Introduction
4

 Outcome Assessment Questions

 What are the two numeric digits used to represent
states in a digital system?
 What are the two terms used to represent the two logic
levels?
 What is the abbreviation for binary digit?
 Introduction
5

 Digital Signals
 The transition between the two states is called an edge.
 At dawn, when the signal proceeds from HIGH to
LOW, it is considered a falling edge, or negative edge.
 Introduction
6

 Need for Timing Digital

 To show the relationship between changes at the input
and changes at the output in order to demonstrate the
operation of the system.
 This means the logic states must be observed over
time.
 Timing diagrams show the relationship, over time,
between many digital “signals.”
 Introduction
7

 Analog and Digital Representations

 Analog representation a quantity is represented by a continuously variable,

proportional indicator.
 E.g.
 Speedometer
 Thermometers
 Digital representation the quantities are represented not by continuously
variable indicators but by symbols called digits.
 E.g.
 Digital Speedometer
 Digital indoor/outdoor thermometer
 The major difference between analog and digital quantities, then, can be
simply stated as follows:
 Analog ≡ continuous
 Digital ≡ discrete (step by step)
 Introduction
8

 Outcome Assessment Questions:

 Which of the following involve analog quantities and which
involve digital quantities?
 (a) Elevation using a ladder
 (b) Elevation using a ramp
 (c) Current flowing from an electrical outlet through a motor
 (d) Height of a child measured by a yard stick ruler
 (e) Height of a child measured by putting a mark on the wall
 (f) Amount of rocks in a bucket
 (g) Amount of sand in a bucket
 (h) Time of day using a sundial
 (j) Time of day using your cell phone
 Introduction
9

 Digital and Analog systems

 A digital system is a combination of devices designed to manipulate
logical information or physical quantities that are represented in digital
form; that is, the quantities can take on only discrete values.
 These devices are most often electronic, but they can also be
mechanical, magnetic, or pneumatic.
 An analog system contains devices that manipulate physical quantities
that are represented in analog form.
 In an analog system, the quantities can vary over a continuous range
of values.
 For example, the amplitude of the output signal to the speaker in a
radio receiver can have any value between zero and its maximum
limit.
 Introduction
10

 Advantages of Digital Techniques

 Digital systems are generally easier to design
 Information storage is easy
 Accuracy and precision are easier to maintain throughout the system
 Operations can be programmed
 Digital circuits are less affected by noise
 More digital circuitry can be fabricated on IC chips
 Introduction
11

 Limitations of Digital Techniques

 The real world is analog and digitizing always introduces some
error. Processing digitized signals takes time.
 To take advantage of digital techniques when dealing with analog
inputs and outputs, four steps must be followed:
 1. Convert the physical variable to an electrical signal (analog).
 2. Convert the electrical (analog) signal into digital form.
 3. Process (operate on) the digital information.
 4. Convert the digital outputs back to real-world analog form.
 Introduction
12

Diagram of a precision digital temperature control

system.
 Introduction
13

 Digital Number Systems

 Decimal System
 The decimal system is composed of 10 numerals or
symbols. These 10 symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
The decimal system, also called the base-10.
 Decimal position values as powers of 10.
 Introduction
14

 Decimal Counting
 Introduction
15

 Binary System
 Unfortunately, the decimal number system does not lend
itself to convenient implementation in digital systems.
 For example, it is very difficult to design electronic equipment
so that it can work with 10 different voltage levels (each one
representing one decimal character, 0 through 9).
 On the other hand, it is very easy to design simple, accurate
electronic circuits that operate with only two voltage levels.
 For this reason, almost every digital system uses the binary
(base-2) number system as the basic number system of its
operations
 Introduction
16

 Binary System
 Binary position values as powers of 2.
 Introduction
17

 Binary Counting
 Introduction
18

 Parallel and Serial Transmission

 Introduction
19

 Parallel and Serial Transmission

 Parallel transmission uses one connecting line per bit,
and all bits are transmitted simultaneously;
 Serial transmission uses only one signal line, and the
individual bits are transmitted serially (one at a time).
 Introduction
20

 Memory
 Difference between non-memory and memory circuits
 Introduction
21

 Memory
 When an input signal is applied to most devices or circuits,
the output somehow changes in response to the input, and
when the input signal is removed, the output returns to its
original state. These circuits do not exhibit the property of
memory because their outputs revert back to normal.
 Certain types of devices and circuits do have memory.
When an input is applied to such a circuit, the output will
change its state, but it will remain in the new state even
after the input is removed. This property of retaining its
response to a momentary input is called memory.
 Introduction
22

 Digital Computers
 Introduction
23

 Digital Computers
 Major Parts of a Computer
 Inputunit
 Output unit
 Memory unit
 Arithmetic/logic unit
 Control unit
 24

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES, BJT BIASING,

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER APPLICATION
CIRCUITS,
VOLTAGE REGULATOR,
D TO A AND A TO D CONVERTER

Module-1
 Referred Books/Sources
25

 Charles H Roth and Larry L Kinney, Analog and

Digital Electronics, Cengage Learning, 2019
 Robert L. Boylestad Louis Nashelsky : Electronic
Devices and Circuit Theory, Eleventh Edition,
2013.
 Albert Malvino, David J. Bates : Electronic
principles, Eighth edition, 2016.
 Thomas L. Floyd: Electronic Devices, Ninth
Edition, Prentice Hall, 2012
 Objectives
26

 OP-Amp
 Peak Detector Circuit, Active Filters, Non-Linear
Amplifier, Relaxation Oscillator Current-To-Voltage
Converter, Voltage-To-Current Converter.
 Multivibrator circuits configuration around digital
integrated circuits,
 Multivibrator circuits configured around timer IC 555.
27 Semiconductor diodes
 Semiconductor diodes
28

 Photodiode
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 Phtocoupler
 Photodiode
29

 The photodiode is a semiconductor p – n junction device

whose region of operation is limited to the reverse-bias region.
 The reverse saturation current is normally limited to a few
microamperes.
 It is due solely to the thermally generated minority carriers in
the n - and p -type materials.
 The application of light to the junction will result in a transfer
of energy from the incident traveling light waves (in the form
of photons) to the atomic structure, resulting in an increased
number of minority carriers and an increased level of reverse
current.
 Photodiode
30

 Construction
 Photodiode
31

 Construction
 The surface of a layer of N type is bombarded with P type silicon ions to
produce a P type layer about 1 µm (micrometre) thick.
 During the formation of the diode, electrons from the N type layer are
attracted into the P type material and holes from the P type are attracted
into the N type layer, resulting in the removal of free charge carriers close
to the PN junction, so creating a depletion layer.
 The (light facing) top of the diode is protected by a layer of Silicon Dioxide
(SiO2) in which there is a window for light to shine on the semiconductor.
 This window allow maximum absorption of light and an anode connection
of aluminium (Al) is provided to the P type layer.
 Beneath the N type layer is a more heavily doped N+ layer to provide a low
resistance connection to the cathode.
 Photodiode
32

 Working Principle

Photodiode: basic biasing arrangement and construction, symbol and Photodiode

characteristics
 Photodiode
33

 Working Principle
 Recall that when reverse-biased, a rectifier diode has a very small reverse leakage
current.
 The same is true for a photodiode.
 The reverse-biased current is produced by thermally generated electron-hole pairs in the
depletion region, which are swept across the pn-junction by the electric field created by
the reverse voltage.
 In a rectifier diode, the reverse leakage current increases with temperature due to an
increase in the number of electron-hole pairs.
 A photodiode differs from a rectifier diode in that when its pn junction is exposed to
light, the reverse current increases with the light intensity.
 When there is no incident light, the reverse current, is almost negligible and is called
the dark current.
 An increase in the amount of light intensity, expressed as irradiance (mW/cm2),
produces an increase in the reverse current,
 Photodiode
34

 Applications:
 Smoke Detector Circuit, Compact disc player, TV Remote,
Camera light meter, Street Light,
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
35

 The increasing use of digital displays in calculators, watches,

and all forms of instrumentation has contributed to an extensive
interest in structures that emit light when properly biased.
 The light-emitting diode is a diode that gives off visible or
invisible (infrared) light when energized.
 The energy converted during recombination at the junction is
dissipated in the form of heat within the structure, and the
emitted light.
 Diodes constructed of GaAs emit light in the infrared
(invisible) zone during the recombination process at the p–n
junction.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
36

 The below table provides a list of common

compound semiconductors and the light they
generate.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
37

 Construction

Process of electroluminescence in the LED, graphic symbol and Parts of an LED

 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
38

 Construction
 The external metallic conducting surface connected
to the p -type material is smaller to permit the
emergence of the maximum number of photons of
light energy when the device is forward-biased.
Note in the figure that the recombination of the
injected carriers due to the forward-biased junction
results in emitted light at the site of the
recombination.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
39

 Working Principle
 When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and
recombine with holes in the p-type material.
 These free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy than the holes in the valence
band.
 The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the energy of visible
light.
 When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of photons.
 The emitted light tends to be monochromatic (one color) that depends on the band gap (and other
factors).
 A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photons to be
emitted as visible light.
 This process, called electroluminescence,
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
40

 Working Principle

• The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon diode.
• Typically, the maximum VD for LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the
material.
• Reverse breakdown for an LED is much less than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to
10 V is typical).
• The LED emits light in response to a sufficient forward current.
• The amount of power output translated into light is directly proportional to the
forward current.
• An increase in ID corresponds proportionally to an increase in light output.
• The light output (both intensity and color) is also dependent on temperature. Light
intensity goes down with higher temperature.
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
41

 Applications
 TV Remote, Calculator, Traffic Signals, Watches
and Automotive Head Lamps
 Phtocoupler (Optocoupler)
42

 Construction

 An optocoupler (also called an optoisolator) combines an LED and a

photodiode in a single package.
 Figure shows an optocoupler.
 It has an LED on the input side and a photodiode on the output side.
 The left source voltage and the series resistor set up a current
through the LED.
 Phtocoupler (Optocoupler)
43

 Working Principle
 Then the light from the LED hits the photodiode, and this sets
up a reverse current in the output circuit.
 This reverse current produces a voltage across the output
resistor.
 The output voltage then equals the output supply voltage
minus the voltage across the resistor.
 When the input voltage is varying, the amount of light is
fluctuating. This means that the output voltage is varying in
step with the input voltage. This is why the combination of an
LED and a photodiode is called an optocoupler.
 Phtocoupler (Optocoupler)
44

 Applications:
 Switches, SMPS, Signal Isolation, Modem
Communication
45 BJT Biasing
 Introduction
46

 The term biasing is an all-inclusive term for the

application of dc voltages to establish a fixed level of
current and voltage.
 For transistor amplifiers the resulting dc current and
voltage establish an operating point on the
characteristics that define the region that will be
employed for amplification of the applied signal.
 Because the operating point is a fixed point on the
characteristics, it is also called the quiescent point
(abbreviated Q -point).
 Introduction
47

 Following important basic relationships for a transistor:

 VBE = 0.7 V
 IE = (β + 1)IB ≈ IC
 IC = βIB

 Types of Biasing
 Base Bias or Fixed Bias
 Collector to Base Bias
 Voltage Divider Bias
 Base Bias or Fixed Bias
48

 Circuit Diagram  Apply KVL at input

side or Base Emitter
Side So,
 +VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
 The current IB is :


 Now IC = βIB
 Base Bias or Fixed Bias
49

Apply KVL at output side or

 Circuit Diagram 

Collector Emitter Side So,

 VCE + ICRC – VCC = 0
 and
 VCE = VCC – ICRC

 From Circuit
 VCE = VC – VE
 VBE = VB – VE
 and VE = 0V
 So
 VCE = VC
 VBE = VB
 Collector to Base Bias
50

 Circuit Diagram  The current through RC

is not IC , but I’C.
where I’C = IC + IB.
 However, the level of IC
and I’C far exceeds
the usual level of IB, and
the approximation IC≈I’C
is normally employed.
 Substituting IC ≈ IC = βIB
and IE ≈ IC
 Collector to Base Bias
51

 Circuit Diagram  From input side of the circuit

 VCC – I’CRC – IBRF – VBE – IERE = 0
 So
 VCC– βIBRC – IBRF – VBE – βIBRE = 0
 VCC – IBRF – VBE – βIB(RE + RC)= 0
 Now

 And IC = βIB
 Collector to Base Bias
52

 Circuit Diagram  Apply KVL at output side or

Collector Emitter Side So,
 IERE + VCE + I’CRC – VCC = 0
 I’C ≈ IC and I E ≈ IC
 We have
 IC(RC + RE) + VCE – VCC = 0
 and
 VCE = VCC – IC(RC + RE)
 Voltage Divider Bias
53

 Circuit Diagram  Let I1 and I2 are current

through R1 and R2.
 From circuit (apply KCL)
 I1 = IB + I2
 The current IB is much
smaller than I2.
 So I1 = I2
 The voltage across R 2,
which is actually the base
voltage can be determined
using the voltage-divider rule
 Voltage Divider Bias
54

 Circuit Diagram  VB is determined, the

level of VE can be
calculated from
 VBE = VB – VE
 VE = VB – VBE
 and the emitter current
can be determined from

 and ICQ ≈ IE
 Voltage Divider Bias
55

 Circuit Diagram  The collector-to-emitter

voltage is determined by
 VCE = VCC – ICRC – IERE
 but because IE ≈ IC,
 VCEQ = VCC – IC(RC + RE)
 56

INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATIONAL
AMPLIFIER
 Introduction to Operational Amplifier
Ideal v/s practical Op-amp
57

 Difference between Ideal and Practical Op-Amp

Practical Op-Amp
Parameters Ideal Op-Amp
(E.g. LM 741)
Bandwidth (BW) Infinite 1MHz
Slew Rate (SR) Infinite 0.5 V / μs
Open loop gain (AOL) Infinite 200,000
Common Mode Rejection
Infinite 90 dB
Ratio (CMRR)
Power Supply Rejection 120 dB (+Supply)
Zero
Ratio (PSRR) 110 dB (-Supply)
Input impedance (Ri) Infinite 2 MΩ
Output impedance (Ro) Zero 75 Ω
Offset and Offset Drifts Zero 1mV, 20nA
 Introduction to Operational Amplifier
58

 The 741 Op Amp

 59

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
APPLICATION CIRCUITS
 Peak Detector Circuit
60

 RC ≥ 10 T
 Peak Detector Circuit
61

 During +ve half cycle when the input voltage is positive, the diode is
conducting/ON and capacitor charges to the peak of the input voltage.
 Second, when the input voltage is negative during –ve half cycle, the diode is
non-conducting/OFF and the capacitor discharges through the load resistor.
 As long as the discharging time constant is much greater than the period of the
input signal (T), the output voltage will be approximately equal to the peak
value of the input voltage.
 This can achieved by making discharging time constant RC can be made much
longer than the period of the input signal (RC ≥ 10 T), will get almost perfect
peak detection of low-level signals.
 If the peak-detected signal has to drive a small load, to avoid loading effects by
connecting the voltage follower (op-amp buffer) isolates the small load resistor
from the peak detector. This prevents the small load resistor from discharging
the capacitor too quickly.
 Comparator
62

 Comparator circuit compares a single voltage on

one input of op-amp with a known voltage called
reference voltage (Trip point or trigger point) on
the other input and produces high or low output
depending upon relative magnitude of two input.
 Comparators with Zero Reference
 Comparators with Nonzero References
 Comparators with Hysteresis or Schmitt Trigger
 Window Comparator
 Comparator
Comparators with Zero Reference
63

 Non-Inverting Comparator

 Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a positive input voltage produces
positive saturation, and a negative input voltage produces negative saturation.
 Above circuit is called a zero-crossing detector because the output voltage
ideally switches from low to high or vice versa whenever the input voltage
crosses zero (input compares with zero reference voltage).
 Comparator
Comparators with Zero Reference
64

 Non-Inverting Comparator
 Comparator
Comparators with Zero Reference
65

 Inverting Comparator

 The input signal drives the inverting input of the comparator. In this
case, a positive input voltage produces a maximum negative saturation,
as shown in above diagram. On the other hand, a negative input voltage
produces a maximum positive saturation.
 Comparator
Comparators with Zero Reference
66

 Inverting Comparator
 Comparator
Comparators with Nonzero References
67

 Non-Inverting Comparator: Positive reference

 When Vin is greater than Vref, the differential input voltage is positive and
the output voltage is high (+Vsat). When Vin is less than Vref, the
differential input voltage is negative and the output voltage is low (-Vsat).
 Vin > Vref then Vout = +Vsat
 Vin < Vref then Vout = - Vsat
 Comparator
Comparators with Nonzero References
68

 Non-Inverting Comparator: Positive reference

 Comparator
Comparators with Nonzero References
69

 Non-Inverting Comparator: Negative reference

 Vin > Vref then Vout = + Vsat

 Vin < Vref then Vout = - Vsat
 Comparator
Comparators with Nonzero References
70

 Non-Inverting Comparator: Negative reference

 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
71

 If the input to a comparator contains a large amount of noise, the output will be erratic when
Vin is near the trip point.
 When the noise peaks are large enough, they produce unwanted changes in the comparator
output. In diagram observe that producing unwanted transitions from low to high. When an
input signal is present, the noise is superimposed on the input signal and produces erratic
triggering.
 One way to reduce the effect of noise is by using a comparator with positive feedback.
 The positive feedback produces two separate trip points that prevent a noisy input from
producing false transitions.
 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
72

 Inverting Schmitt trigger

 When the comparator is positively saturated, a
positive voltage is fed back to the noninverting
input. This positive feedback voltage holds the
output in the high state.
 Similarly, when the output voltage is negatively
saturated, a negative voltage is fed back to the
noninverting input, holding the output in the low
state.
 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
73

 Inverting Schmitt trigger

 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
74

 Inverting Schmitt trigger

 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
75

 Inverting Schmitt trigger

 The output voltage will remain in a given state until the input
voltage exceeds the reference voltage for that state.
 For instance, if the output is positively saturated, the reference
voltage is +BVsat. The input voltage must be increased to slightly
more than +BVsat to switch the output voltage from positive to
negative, as shown in input/output response has hysteresis.
 Once the output is in the negative state, it will remain there
indefinitely until the input voltage becomes more negative than
-BVsat. Then, the output switches from negative to positive
shown in input/output response has hysteresis.
 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
76

 Inverting Schmitt trigger

 The trip points are defined as the two input voltages where the
output voltage changes states. The upper trip point (UTP) has the
value:
 UTP = + BVsat
 and the lower trip point (LTP) has the value:
 LTP = - BVsat
 The difference between these trip points is defined as the hysteresis
(also called the deadband ):
 VH = UTP - LTP
 which equals:
 VH = 2BVsat
 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
77

 Inverting Schmitt trigger

 Lab experiment:
 a) Design and construct a Schmitt trigger using Op-
Amp for given UTP and LTP values and demonstrate
its working. (Wired Experiment)
 b) Design and implement a Schmitt trigger using Op-
Amp using a simulation package for two sets of UTP
and LTP values and demonstrate its working.
(Simulation Experiment)
 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
78

 Non-Inverting Schmitt trigger

 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
79


 Non-Inverting
  Schmitt trigger
 Let current through the R1 is Iin (In coming) and R2 is Iout (Out
going)
 So


 When Vin becomes positive and greater that then the output
switches to +Vsat. Therefore UTP is


 Similarly

 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
80

 Non-Inverting Schmitt trigger

 Assume that the output is negatively saturated. The
feedback voltage will hold the output in negative
saturation until the input voltage becomes slightly
more positive than UTP. When this happens, the
output switches from negative to positive saturation.
 Once in positive saturation, the output stays there
until the input voltage becomes slightly less than LTP.
Then, the output can change back to the negative
state.
 Comparator
Schmitt Trigger or Regenerative Feedback
81

 Application of Schmitt trigger

 Digital to analog conversion
 One bit DAC
 Level Detection
 Hysteresis voltage
 Line reception
 Output level is only changed as the data chnages
 Comparator
Window Comparator
82

 An ordinary comparator indicates when the input

voltage exceeds a certain limit or threshold.
 A window comparator (also called a double-
ended limit detector) detects when the input voltage
is between two limits called the window. To create
a window comparator, will use two comparators
with different thresholds.
 Comparator
Window Comparator
83

 Low Output between Limits

 Comparator
Window Comparator
84

 Low Output between Limits

 Circuit shows a window comparator that can produce a low output
voltage when the input voltage is between a lower and an upper limit.
 When Vin is less than LTP or greater than UTP, the output is high. When
Vin is between LTP and UTP, the output is low.
 Operation:
 When Vin < LTP, comparator A1 has a positive output and A2 has a negative
output. Diode D1 is on and D2 is off. Therefore, the output voltage is high.
 Similarly, when Vin > UTP, comparator A1 has a negative output and A2 has a
positive output. Diode D1 is off, D2 is on, and the output voltage is high.
 When LTP < Vin < UTP, A1 has a negative output, A2 has a negative output,
D1 is off, D2 is off, and the output voltage is low.
 Active Filters
85

 An electric filter is often a frequency selective circuit that passes a specified band
of frequency and blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies outside this band.
 Active filters employs transistor or op-amp in addition to resistor and capacitor.
 RC network are used for filter.
 The most commonly used filters are follows:
 Low pass filters
 High pass filter
 Band pass filter
 Band reject filter.
 All pass filter
 Next slide shows the frequency response characteristics of the five types of filter.
The ideal response is shown by dashed line. While the solid lines indicates the
practical filter response.
 Active Filters
86
 Active Filters
87

 A filter that provides a constant output from dc up to a cut-off

frequency fH and then passes no signal above that frequency is
called an ideal low-pass filter.
 A filter that provides or passes signals above a cutoff
frequency fL is a high-pass filter, as shown in previous slide.
 When the filter circuit passes signals that are above one ideal
cutoff frequency (fL) and below a second cutoff frequency, (f H)
it is called a bandpass filter.
 Two types of filters
 First Order Filter – One capacitor used
 Second Order Filter – Two or more capacitor used
 Active Filters
88

 Attenuation refers to a loss of signal.

 The order of a passive filter equals the number of
inductors and capacitors in the filter.
 The quality factor (Q) is the measure of
“frequency selectivity" of a filter circuit.
 High the Q narrower the bandwidth
 Lower the Q wider the bandwidth
 Active Filters- Low-pass filter
89

 Non-Inverting unity gain

 It is nothing more than an RC lag circuit and a voltage follower. The voltage gain
is: Av = 1.
 When the frequency increases above the cutoff frequency, the capacitive
reactance decreases and reduces the noninverting input voltage.
 Since the R1C1 lag circuit is outside the feedback loop, the output voltage rolls
off. As the frequency approaches infinity, the capacitor becomes a short and
there is zero input voltage.
 Active Filters- Low-pass filter
90

 Non-Inverting with voltage gain

 Although it has two additional resistors, it has the

advantage of voltage gain.
 Active Filters- Low-pass filter
91

 Inverting with voltage gain

 As the frequency increases, the capacitive reactance decreases and reduces the
impedance of the feedback branch. This implies less voltage gain.
 As the frequency approaches infinity, the capacitor becomes a short and there is no
voltage gain.
 Active Filters- High-pass filter
92

 Noninverting unity gain

 When the frequency decreases below the cutoff frequency, the

capacitive reactance increases and reduces the noninverting input
voltage.
 Since the R1C1 circuit is outside the feedback loop, the output voltage
rolls off. As the frequency approaches zero, the capacitor becomes an
open and there is zero input voltage.
 Active Filters- High-pass filter
93

 Non-Inverting with voltage gain

 Active Filters- High-pass filter
94

 Inverting with voltage gain

 Active Filters- Second Order Filter
Low Pass/High Pass Filter
95

 Generalized form of second order filter

 If Z1=Z2=R and Z3=Z4=C get second order low pass filter

 If Z1=Z2=C and Z3=Z4=R get second order high pass filter
 Active Filters- Band-pass Filter
96

 Two types of band pass filter

 Wide band pass filter
 Narrow band pass filter
 Active Filters- Band-pass Filter
97

 Wide Band Pass Filters

 Cascade of low-pass and high-pass filter
 Active Filters- Band-pass Filter
98

 Narrow Band Pass Filters

 In the circuit the input signal goes to the inverting input

rather than the noninverting input. Also the circuit has two
feedback paths, one through a capacitor and another
through a resistor.
 Active Filters- Band-pass Filter
99

 Narrow Band Pass Filters

 At low frequencies, the capacitors appear to be open.
Therefore, the input signal cannot reach the op amp,
and the output is zero.
 At high frequencies, the capacitors appear to be shorted.
In this case, the voltage gain is zero because the
feedback capacitor has zero impedance.
 Between the low and high extremes in frequency, there
is a band of frequencies where the circuit acts like an
inverting amplifier.
 Active Filters- Band-Reject/Stop Filter
100

 Two types of Band Reject Filter:

 Wide/Broad Band Reject filter
 Narrow/Notch Band Reject Filter
 Wide/Broad Band Reject filter
 Summing together the output of the low pass and high
pass filter produces broad reject filter.
 Active Filters- Band-Reject/Stop/Notch Filter
101

 Narrow/Notch Band Reject Filter

 Active Filters- Band-Reject/Stop/Notch Filter
102

 Narrow/Notch Band Reject Filter

 At low frequencies, all capacitors are open. As a result, all the
input signal reaches the noninverting input of op-amp and
passes to the output.
 At very high frequencies, the capacitors are shorted. Again,
all the input signal reaches the noninverting input and passes
to the output.
 Between the low and high extremes in frequency the
feedback signal returns with the correct amplitude and phase
to attenuate the signal on the noninverting input. Because of
this, the output voltage drops to a very low value.
 Active Filters- All Pass Filter
103

 Also called phase filter because the filter shifts the

phase of the output signal without changing the
magnitude.
 Active Filters- All Pass Filter
104

 All-pass lag filter

 R<< (1/2πfC) then phase shift Ø= 0º

 R>> (1/2πfC) then phase shift Ø= -180º
 R= (1/2πfC) then phase shift Ø= -90º
 Where f is the input frequecy
 Active Filters- All Pass Filter
105

 All-pass lead filter

 R<< (1/2πfC )then phase shift Ø= 90º

 R>> (1/2πfC )then phase shift Ø= 180º
 R= (1/2πfC) then phase shift Ø= 0º
 Where f is the input frequecy
 Non-Linear Amplifier
106

 In this amplifier the gain value is non-linear

function of the amplitude of the input signal.
 The gain may be large for weak signal and very
small for large signal this can achieved using non-
linear device such as PN junction diode as shown
below. Also called log amplifier.
 Non-Linear Amplifier
107

 Working:
 For small value of input signal, diodes act as open
circuit and the gain is high due to minimum feedback.
 When the amplitude of input signal is large, diodes
offer very small resistance and thus gain is low.
 Relaxation Oscillator
108
 Relaxation Oscillator
109

 In circuit, there is no input signal.

 Nevertheless, the circuit produces a rectangular output signal. This output is
a square wave that swings between –Vsat and +Vsat. How is this possible?
 Assume that the output is in positive saturation. Because of feedback resistor
R, the capacitor will charge exponentially toward +Vsat, as shown in
waveform. But the capacitor voltage never reaches +Vsat because the voltage
crosses the UTP. When this happens, the output square wave switches to –
Vsat.
 With the output now in negative saturation, the capacitor discharges, as
shown in waveform. When the capacitor voltage crosses through zero, the
capacitor starts charging negatively toward –Vsat. When the capacitor
voltage crosses the LTP, the output square wave switches back to +Vsat. The
cycle then repeats.
 Relaxation Oscillator
110

 Lab Experiment:
 a) Design and construct a square waveform generator
(Op-Amp relaxation oscillator) for given frequency
and demonstrate its working. (Wired Experiment)
 b) Design and implement a square waveform generator
(Op-Amp relaxation oscillator) using a simulation
package and demonstrate the change in frequency
when all resistor values are doubled. (Simulation
Experiment)
 Current-To-Voltage Converter
111

 Also called Transimpedance amplifier

 


 Fig-1can also be represent as Fig-2

 From Fig-2 Voltage gain of the amplifier

is
 or
 -------------------(1)
Fig-
 From Fig-2 circuit
1

 So equation (1) becomes

 So input current converted to output

voltage.
 Application: DAC, Sensing Current from
photodetector Fig-
2
 Voltage-To-Current Converter
112


 Also
  called Transconductance
amplifier.
 Apply KVL at input side

 Form equation the input voltage

is converted into output current.
 Application: DC and AC
voltmeter, LED, Zener Diode
tester.
 113

WAVE SHAPING
CIRCUITS
 Integrated Circuit(IC)
114
Multivibrators
 A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a “HIGH” state and a “LOW”
state producing a continuous output.
 It generates square, rectangular, pulse waveforms, also called nonlinear
oscillators or function generators.
 There are basically three types of clock pulse generation circuits:
 Astable – A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but

switches continuously between two states this action produces a train

of square/rectangular wave pulses at a fixed frequency.
 Monostable – A one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state

and is triggered externally with it returning back to its first stable state.
 Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that produces a single

pulse either positive or negative in value.

 Integrated Circuit(IC)
115
Multivibrators
 Integrated Circuit(IC)
116
Multivibrators
 The NE555 (also LM555, CA555) is a widely used IC timer, a
circuit that can run in either of two modes: monostable (one
stable state) or astable (no stable states).
 Integrated Circuit(IC)
117
Multivibrators

 Functional
  Block Diagram of
IC 555
 The 555 timer contains a
voltage divider, two
comparators, an RS flip-flop,
and an npn transistor.
 Since the voltage divider has
equal resistors, the top
comparator (C1) has a trip
point of:

 The lower comparator (C2) has

a trip point of:
 Integrated Circuit(IC)
118
Multivibrators
 Pin-1 (Ground)
 Pin-2 (Trigger) Is connected to the lower comparator. The trigger voltage that is used for the
monostable operation of the 555 timer. When the timer is inactive, the trigger voltage is
high. When the trigger voltage falls to less than the LTP, the lower comparator (C2)
produces a high output.
 Pin-3 (Output)
 Pin-4 (Reset) Pin 4 may be used to reset the output voltage to zero. If Pin 4 is not in used so
it should connected to +VCC.
 Pin-5 (Control) Pin 5 may be used to control the output frequency when the 555 timer is
used in the astable mode. If not in use then pin 5 is bypassed to ground through a capacitor
 Pin-6 (Threshold) Pin 6 is connected to the upper comparator. The voltage on pin 6 is called
the threshold. When the threshold voltage is greater than the UTP, the upper comparator
(C1) has a high output.
 Pin-7 (Discharge) To discharge the external connected capacitor when transistor in ON.
 Pin-8 (+VCC)
 Integrated Circuit(IC)
119
Multivibrators
 SR Flip-Flop
S R
0 0 No Change
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 Invalid

 Duty cycle (D) is the proportion of time during which the device is operated.  
 In terms of square wave signal it defines the percentage of time for which signal
is at logic high level.
 For square wave it can be calculated as (high time / (high time + low time))
 Duty cycle of 50% means that the low time and high time of the signal is same.
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Astable Operation of the 555 Timer
120

 Circuit Diagram 
 Charge
  time (High Time)

 Discharge time (Low

Time)

 Total Time period T is

 The frequency is given by

 The duty cycle is

 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Astable Operation of the 555 Timer
121

Capacitor and output waveforms

 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Astable Operation of the 555 Timer
122

Capacitor and output waveforms

When output = High, so the

 
transistor is OFF and
capacitor C starts charging
through R1 and R2 till reaches
to UTP
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Astable Operation of the 555 Timer
123

Capacitor and output waveforms

 When output = Low, so the

transistor is ON and capacitor
C starts discharging through
R2 till reaches to LTP
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Astable Operation of the 555 Timer
124

 When Q is low, the transistor is cut off and the capacitor is charging through R1 and R2
 


resistance. Because of this, the charging time constant is (R1+R2)C. As the capacitor
charges, the threshold voltage (pin 6) increases. Eventually, the threshold voltage
exceeds VCC. Then, the upper comparator sets the flip-flop.
 With Q high, the transistor saturates and grounds pin 7. The capacitor now discharges
through R2. Therefore, the discharging time constant is R2C. When the capacitor
voltage drops to slightly less than VCC, the lower comparator resets the flip-flop.
 The output is a rectangular wave that swings between 0 and VCC. Since the charging
time constant is longer than the discharging time constant, the output is nonsymmetrical.
Depending on resistances R1 and R2, the duty cycle is between 50 and 100 percent.
 When R1 is much smaller than R2, the duty cycle approaches 50 percent. Conversely,
when R1 is much greater than R2, the duty cycle approaches 100 percent.
 To make the duty cycle to become less than 50 percent. By placing a diode in parallel
with R2 (anode connected to pin 7), the capacitor will effectively charge through R1 and
the diode. The capacitor will discharge through R2.
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Astable Operation of the 555 Timer
125

 Lab Experiment:
 Design and implement an Astable multivibrator circuit
using 555 timer for a given frequency and duty cycle.
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Monostable Operation of the 555 Timer
126

 Circuit Diagram  Pulse Width is

 W=1.1RC
 The circuit has an external
resistor R and a capacitor C.
 The voltage across the
capacitor is used for the
threshold voltage to pin 6.
 When the trigger arrives at
pin 2, the circuit produces a
rectangular output pulse
from pin 3.
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Monostable Operation of the 555 Timer
127
 Integrated Circuit(IC) Multivibrators
Monostable Operation of the 555 Timer
128

 Initially, the Q output of the RS flip-flop is high. This turn ON the


 
transistor and the capacitor discharge to ground through pin 7. The circuit
will remain in this state until a trigger arrives at pin 2.
 When the trigger input falls to slightly less than VCC the lower
comparator resets the flip-flop. Since Q has changed to low, the transistor
goes OFF, allowing the capacitor to charge. At this time, has changed to
high.
 The capacitor now charges exponentially through R as shown in
waveform. When the capacitor voltage is slightly greater than VCC, the
upper comparator sets the flip-flop. The high Q turns ON the transistor,
which discharges the capacitor almost instantly. At the same instant,
returns to the low state and the output pulse ends.
 remains low until another input trigger arrives.
129 Voltage Regulator
 Objective
130

 Comprehend importance of voltage regulator and

its characteristics.
 Study IC based voltage regulator and its analysis.
 Introduction
131

 A voltage regulator provides a constant dc output

voltage that is essentially independent of the input
voltage, output load current, and temperature.
 The voltage regulator is one part of a power supply.
 Its input voltage comes from the filtered output of a
rectifier derived from an ac voltage or from a
battery in the case of portable systems.
 Need for Regulator
132

 Power supply circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and

then voltage regulators.
 Starting with an ac voltage, we obtain a steady dc voltage
by rectifying the ac voltage, then filtering to a dc level,
and, finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage.
 The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage
regulator unit, which takes a dc voltage and provides a
somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even
if the input dc voltage varies or the output load connected
to the dc voltage changes.
 Need for Regulator
133

 Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply

 Need for Regulator
134

 The ac voltage, typically 230V, 50Hz, is connected to a transformer,

which steps that ac voltage down to the level for the desired dc output.
 A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage, which is
initially filtered by a basic capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage.
 This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation.
 A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not
only has much less ripple voltage, but also remains at the same dc value
even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the
output dc voltage changes.
 Regulator keeps the output voltage constant under variable load
conditions and even in varying input voltage conditions.
 Need for Regulator
135

 Factors Affecting the Load Voltage

 Load Current (IL)
Load current is the current that the load is drawing at that instant.


 The output voltage should remains constant in spite of the change in

the load current.

 Line Voltage

 Input AC 230V is line voltage

 The output voltage must remain constant irrespective of any change

in the line voltage.

 Temperature

 The overall performance of the power supply is temperature

dependent.
 Need for Regulator
136

 Performance Parameters of Power Supply

 Line Regulation
 Load Regulation
 Voltage Stability factor (SV)
 Temperature Stability Factor (ST)
 Ripple Rejection (RR)
 Need for Regulator
137

 Performance Parameters of Power Supply

 Line Regulation (Source Regulation)
 Line regulation can be defined as the percentage
change in the output voltage for a given change in the
input voltage.

 Ideally the line regulation should be zero

 Need for Regulator
138

 Performance Parameters of Power Supply

 Load Regulation
 When the amount of current through a load changes due
to a varying load resistance, the voltage regulator must
maintain a nearly constant output voltage across the load.
 Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change
in output voltage for a given change in load current. One
way to express load regulation is as a percentage change
in output voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL).
 Need for Regulator
139

 Performance Parameters of Power Supply

 Voltage Stability factor (SV)
 Dependency of output voltage on the input line voltage
is called Voltage Stability factor.
 Its is defined as percentage change in the output
voltage which occurs per volt change in input voltage
where load current and temperature are constant.
 Ideally its should be zero.
 Need for Regulator
140

 Performance Parameters of Power Supply

 Temperature Stability Factor (ST)
 The stability of the power supply will be determined
by temperature coefficient of various temperature
sensitive semiconductor devices.
 Better choose the low temperature coefficient devices.
 E.g. Zener Diodes
 Need for Regulator
141

 Performance Parameters of Power Supply

 Ripple Rejection (RR)
 It is defined as how effectively the regulator rejects the
ripples and attenuate it from input to output.
 RR is very small and in dB
 Adjustable voltage regulator
142

 Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used

ICs.
 Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for
reference source, comparator amplifier, control
device, and overload protection all in a single IC.
 IC units provide regulation of either a fixed
positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an
adjustably set voltage.
 Adjustable voltage regulator
143

 Voltage regulators are also available in circuit

configurations that allow the user to set the output
voltage to a desired regulated value.
 The LM317, for example, can be operated with the
output voltage regulated at any setting over the
range of voltage from 1.2 V to 37 V.
 Adjustable voltage regulator
144

With typical IC values of VREF=1.25V and IADJ= 100 mA

 Adjustable voltage regulator
145

 For LM317
 The load regulation is 0.1 %
 Line regulation is 0.01 %
 RR is 80dB
 LM337 is a Adjustable Negative Linear Voltage Regulators
 Advantage of Adjustable Voltage Regulators is
 Voltage range from 1.2V to 37V
 Output current 0.1A to 1.5A
 Better load and line regulation
 Improve system performance, reliability and thermal overloading
 Good overload protection