CHAPTER TWO

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

By: Zelalem Wondimu

School of Psychology
Addis Ababa University
2.1. Basics of Human Development
Development
 Physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and language changes (nature
and nurture).
Growth
Quantitative changes
 Size (height, weight, width, and physiological function),

 Complexity (cell division and multiplication of cell within),

 Proportion (ratio of changes in different parts of your body).

Maturation
 Genetically programmed, naturally occurring changes

Learning
 A relatively permanent change in behavior practice or
experience in the interaction with environment.
Basics of Human Dev’t Cont..
 Growth, maturation, and learning mutually
contribute to development.

Development (heredity and environment).

Growth Maturation Learning Development

2.2. Principles of Human Development
 There are individual differences
 The principles and characteristics of development are
universal patterns.
Some major principles of human development
Development proceeds from head to tail
 Proceeds from head to lower body parts and extremities.

 The cephalocaudal principle applies to both physical and functional

development.
Development proceeds from the center of the body outward
 This is the principle of proximodistal development.

 Proceeds from the center of the body (the proximal region) to the
outer body parts and extremities (distal region).
Development depends on maturation and learning
Principles Cont’nd
Development proceeds from the simple to complex
 Simple tasks to complex ones.

Development is a continuous process

 Adding to the skills already acquired and the new skills
become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.
 Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the
next stage of development.
Development proceeds from the general to specific
 Development occurs from large muscle movements to more
refined (smaller) muscle movements.
 For example, in motor development, the infant will be able to
grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the
thumb and forefinger.
Principles Cont’nd
There are different individual rates of
development.
 Each child is different and the rates at which
individual children develops is different.
 The patterns and sequences for development are
usually the same for all children,
 But the rates at which individual children reach
developmental stages will be different.
 For instance, some children walk at ten months
while others walk a few months older at eighteen
months of age.
2.3. Aspects of Human Development
 Physical development
 Cognitive development

 Language development,
 Social development,

 Emotional development,
 Moral development, and

 Gender development
Approaches in the Study of Human Development
 Studies on human development follow two main approaches.

The topical approach

 Focus on specific aspects of development across the life-span.

 Physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and personality development.

The ages and stages approach

 Focus on the changes and influences that occur during specific stages of
human life.
 Human life can be classified into eight stages. These are:

1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth)

2. Infancy (birth to age 2)
3. Early childhood (ages 2 to 6)
4. Middle childhood (ages 6 to 12)
5. Adolescence (ages 12 to 19)
6. Early adulthood (ages 19 to 40)
7. Middle adulthood (ages 40 to 60)
8. Late adulthood (ages 60 and beyond)
Basic Issues in Human Development
Nature versus Nurture (nativism versus
empiricism)
 Biological vs Environmental forces?

 Development is the product of the interaction

between the two
Activity versus passivity
 Are people active in their development or are they
passively shaped by forces outside themselves?
Basic issues cont’nd
Continuity versus discontinuity
 Are humans changing gradually or dramatically?

 Continuity (occurs in small steps without sudden

changes and it is quantitative).
 Discontinuity (a series of stair steps, each of which
elevates the individual to a new level of
functioning).
Universality versus context specificity
 Are developmental changes common from person to
person and from culture to culture to everyone
(universal) or different from person to person
(context specific).
Basic issues cont’nd
Stability versus plasticity/ early versus late
experience
Stability
 The degree to which people maintain their same
rank order in comparison to other children with
respect to some characteristic.
Plasticity refers
The ability to change as a result of experience.
Assumptions about human Nature
 Are people inherently good, inherently bad or
neither?
2.4. Theories of Human Development 
2.4.1. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
 Detailed observations of his own three children.
 Shifted the view of children’s thinking from that of
“little adults” to something quite different from
adult thinking.
 Children form mental concepts or schemes as they
experience new situations and events.
 Children cognitively adapt to their environment
through assimilation and accommodation.
Piaget’s theory Cont’nd

Assimilation
 Interpretation of actions or events in terms of one’s present
schemas (fitting reality into one’s existing ways of understanding).
 For example, if a mother points to a picture of an apple and tells
her child, “that’s an apple”, the child forms a scheme for “apple”
that looks something like the picture.
 Children first try to understand new things in terms of schemes
they already possess.
Accommodation
 Modification of schemas to fit reality.

 For instance, the child might see an orange and say “apple”
because both objects are round.
 Altering or adjusting old schemes to fit new information and
experience
Stages of cognitive development
1. Sensory motor stage (Birth to two years)
 Children base their understanding of the world primarily on
touching, sucking, chewing, shaking, and manipulating objects.
 Little competence in using images, language, or other
kinds of symbols.
 “Out of sight is out of mind”.
 Infants lack object permanence

 The awareness of objects and people existence even if

they are out of sight.
 However, soon after 9 months they will begin an active
search for the missing object b/c they developed a
mental representation an object.
 Object permanence is a critical development.
2. Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years)
 It is a time of developing language and concepts.

 A child can use a word or a symbol to represent things

around them.
 The child cannot perform operations or mental
manipulations of reality.
 Operation refers to the thought process governed by rules/
logic.
Limitations
I. Ego-centrism
 Inability to perceive reality from the viewpoint of another
person.
 For example, children mostly cover their eyes and say “you
cannot see me”.
II. Lack of ability to decenter:
 Cannot perform mental operations concentrating on many
things at the same time .
III. Lack of ability to reverse
 Irreversible logical operations (3+7=10, then 10-7=3)

IV. Lack of concept of conservation

 The understanding of a given quantity of a substance
remains the same despite the difference in the appearance.
V. Animism
 Consider everything as living and attribute life to animate
objects.
 Tendency to think inanimate objects as having human
power like thinking, emotion, etc
 The Wind, Sun, Moon, Stars, Clouds (living organization)

VI. Realism
 Think pictures, concepts, and symbols as real objects.
 Tendency to see the psychological events like dreams and
thoughts as physical events.
VII. Artificialism
 Tendency to interpret all phenomena, including natural
phenomena as made by human beings, e.g Sun, Moon etc.
3. Concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)
 First operational stage
 Think logically about concrete objects and problems
but not about abstract problems.
 Understanding of relationships between events and
symbols,
 Logical and objectivity of mental operation,
 Ability to add, subtract, classify, order, and deal
with numbers and the ability to apply rules.
4. Formal operational stage (11 and above years to adulthood)
 Begin reasoning about an abstract form of ideas.
 The thought process of children becomes quite abstract,
systematic and reasonable, and well-integrated.
 See possibilities beyond the here and now, and
immediate and concrete environment.
 These abilities continue to develop into adulthood.

 Organize information,

 Reason scientifically,

 Formulate concepts,

 Build hypotheses based on the understanding of

causality, and test their hypothesis
Limitations
Adolescent egocentrism
 The ability to distinguish one’s point of view from that of another person.

i: imaginary audience
ii; personal fable
Imaginary audience
 A belief that other people are preoccupied with one’s appearance and
behavior.
 Young teenagers assume that other people are as concerned about them as
they are themselves.
Personal fable (one’s immortal and unique existence).
 The belief that one’s own life is more unique, dramatic and heroic than
other people’s lives.
 It also shows the belief that the moral laws of nature that apply to other
people don’t apply to adolescents.
 E.g., Mom, you don’t know what it is to be in love!” “Other people may
become addicted to drugs, but not me”.
2.4.2. Freud’s psychosexual theories of development
 At each stage, a different erogenous zone (area of the body)
that produces pleasure becomes a source of pleasure and
conflicts.
 Conflicts that are not fully resolved can result in fixation
and individuals’ get “stuck” to some degree in an early stage
of development.
 The child may grow into an adult but will still carry
emotional and psychological state of mind from that
earlier fixed stage.
The oral stage (Birth to one year)
 The erogenous zone is the area around the mouth.

 Baby gets pleasure from eating, sucking, and

biting.
 Too little or too much satisfaction of the child’s
needs leads to fixated adult personality.
 • over eating
• drinking too much
overindulg •
•
chain smoking
talking too much
e • nail biting
• gum chewing
• too dependent or optimistic

• Aggressive and
• Pessimistic
under
indulge
The Anal stage (One to three years)
 The erogenous zone moves from the mouth area to the anus.

 The main area of conflict here is toile training.

 The child who rebels openly against the demands of the

parents and other adults will refuse to go in the toilet,
instead defecating where and when he/she feels like doing
it.
 Adult as a person who sees messiness as a statement of
personal control and who is somewhat destructive and
hostile.
 Child who is terrified of making a mess and rebels
passively-refusing to go at all or retaining the feces.
 No mess, no punishment.

 As adults they are stingy, obstinate, and stubborn

The Phallic Stage (3-6yrs)
 The libidinal energy shifts to the genital area.

 The child faces a battle between an id impulse and

the demands of society as reflected in the parents’
expectations.
 Children get pleasure by touching their genital
organs and develop sexual desire towards opposite
sex parents.
 They understand sexual relations more clearly from
their observations of sexual intercourse between
their parents or discussions in the family. 
Phallic Stage cont’nd
Oedipus complex
 All males unconsciously want to kill their father and sexually posses
their mothers. 
 Castration anxiety a fear arises in immature mind of boys that his
father will punish his sexual desire to wards his mother by removing
his genital organ.
 This fear eventually leads the child to repress sexual desire for his
mother and avoid angering with his father by identifying with him.
Electra complex
 The young girls unconsciously transfer their sexual desire and love
from their mothers to their fathers
 They doubt that their mothers responsible for the penis the have lost.

 Penis envy is the unconscious desire of young girls to possess a penis.

 Fixation (egocentric, selfishness, impulsiveness and lack of genuine

feeling for others).
Latency stage (6-11yrs)
 Children pour this repressed libidal energy into non-
sexual activities (school, playing, athletics, and
same-sex friendships etc).
The Genital Stage (11yrs onwards)
 The child's energy once again focuses on his
genitals
 Interest turns to heterosexual relationships.
2.4.3. Erikson’s theory of Psychosocial
development
Psychosocial development
 Involves changes in our interactions and
understanding of one another, and our knowledge
and understanding of ourselves as members of
society.
 Each of the stages necessitates the resolution of a
crisis or conflict.
 Each crises resolved sufficiently to deal with

demands made during the following stage of

development.
Trust Vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year).
 The infants/ babies learn to trust of the environment
 If their needs are met by the caregivers)
 If their needs are not met, they fail to develop
feelings of trust in others and remain suspicious and
worry forever.
 Parents must maintain a nurturing environment
so that the children develop basic trust in others.
 The virtue in this stage is hope.
Autonomy Vs. Shame/doubt (1 to 3 years/toddlers)
 Encouraging children to do what they can do.
 A sense of autonomy is a basic attitude of “I think I
can do it” and “I have something of value to offer”.
 The virtue here is will.
Initiative Vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years/preschoolers)
 If children are allowed to express their desires
through guidance, they will develop sense of
initiative.
 Children with a sense of initiative accept new
challenges, are self-starters, and have a strong
sense of personal adequacy.
 So, children must be encouraged to initiate own
actions in a socially acceptable way.
 Thus, the virtue here is purpose.
Industry Vs. inferiority (7 to 11 years)
 Valuing children accomplishments (a sense of
productivity and positive view of competence or
achievements).
 Comparing themselves unfavorably and labeled as
second to others (develop low self-esteem and a
sense of inferiority).
 If a child’s cultural, religious or racial group is
considered as inferior, a sense of personal inferiority
may also develop.
 The virtue here is competency.
Identity Vs. Role confusion (12 to 18 years)
 The crucial stage in Erikson’s theory.

 The term identity refers to “Who am I? To whom do

I belong? And what is my role in the society?”
 A solid sense of identity (a satisfying plan and gain
a sense of security).
 A sense of self-identity (less susceptible to peer
pressure, have a higher level of self-acceptance, are
optimistic and believe that they are in control of
their destinies).
 Failure to develop a solid sense of identity (role
confusion and a sense of aimlessness).
Intimacy Vs. Isolation (18/20 to 35 years)
 The ability to form deep and intimate relationships
with others (sexual intimacy and emotional
attachments to others in the form of marriage).
 The virtue here is love.
Generosity Vs. Stagnation/self-absorption (35 to 60)
 The need for individuals to overcome selfish and
self-centered concerns
 Individuals must take an active interest in helping
and guiding younger persons.
 So, adults develop themselves through guiding their
children.
 The virtue here is care.
Integrity Vs. Despair (above 65 years/old age)
 Looking back and asking oneself

“Did my life have had meaning?

“Did my being here really matter?”
 These elderly people are likely to reflect on their

lives positively even in the face of imminent

death.
 If their answers for these questions are negative,

they may feel a sense of despair.

 They feel that they have wasted their lives and

experience many regrets.

 The virtue here is wisdom.
2.4.4. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
 Developed by Lawrence Kohlberg

 Ability to distinguish good from bad.

 He viewed moral thinking as progressing through a series
of distinct stages.
Moral dilemmas: story of Heinz
 A woman in Europe was dying from a rare disease. Her
only hope was a drug that a local druggist had discovered.
The druggist was charging ten times more than it cost him
to make it. Heinz, the husband of the dying woman, had
desperately tried to borrow money to buy the drug, but he
could borrow only half of the amount he needed. He went
to the druggist, told him that his wife was dying, and asked
to let him pay the druggist later or to sell the drug at a
lower cost. The druggist refused, saying that he had
discovered the drug and he was going to make money from
it. Later, Heinz broke into the druggist’s store to steal the
drug for his wife. Should Heinz have done that? Why?
Level 1: Pre-conventional moral reasoning (4-10
yrs)
 Children’s ideas about right and wrong relies on
their personal needs and perceptions.
Stage 1:Obedience-punishment orientation 
 Children distinguish rightness and wrongness of a
behavior by rewards and punishments involved.
Stage 2: Instrumental-relativism orientation 
 What satisfies one’s own needs is right and what
does not satisfy their needs wrong.
Level 2: Conventional moral reasoning (10-late
adolescence)
 Children’s judgment of right or wrong action is based
on others' approval (family expectation, traditional
values, laws, and legality of society and country).
Stage 3: Good boy/nice girl orientation 
 Individuals evaluates right and wrong actions by the
approval/criticism of immediate peers or close
family.
 Good is what pleasures the immediate others.

Stage 4: Law and order

 Individual judges her/his actions based on laws and
social order.
Level 3: Post conventional moral reasoning (young adolescence
-Adulthood)
 Individual judges actions as right or wrong based on universal
abstract principles
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
 Individual begins regarding right and wrong as a product of social
contracts. that originate from the discussion, negotiations, and a
compromise that can be changed.
 So good (right) is determined by socially agreed up standards of
individuals’ rights.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
 Individuals judge action considering the universal moral principles
(abstract and ethical ones) like justice, human rights, human
dignity, and equality.
 Such individual prepares to sacrifice all, including her/his life for
upholding these principles.