WAVE PROPAGATION

Ionosphere
(80 - 720
km)
Sky wave
Mesosphere
(50 - 80 km)

Space wave Stratosphere

(12 - 50 km)
Ground wave
mitter Recei
ver Troposphere
Trans (0 - 12 km)
Earth
4
WAVE: A WAVE can be defined as a DISTURBANCE
(sound, light, radio waves) that moves through a MEDIUM (air,
water, vacuum).

WAVE MOTION: defined as moving or transferring energy

from one point to another point. For example, when sound
waves strike a microphone
Wave motion in water
The up and down motion is transverse, or at right angles, to the outward motion
of the waves. This type of wave motion is called TRANSVERSE WAVE MOTION.
TRANSVERSE WAVES

Fig : Elements of wave

Fig: TRANSVERSE WAVE

LONGITUDINAL WAVES
MEDIUM
POLARIZATION
 Waves of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Electromagnetic Spectrum—name for the range of
electromagnetic waves when placed in order of increasing
frequency
RADIO INFRARED ULTRAVIOLET GAMMA
WAVES RAYS RAYS RAYS

MICROWAVES X-RAYS
VISIBLE LIGHT
 Radio Frequency
Bands
Classification Band Initials Frequency Range Characteristics
Extremely low ELF < 300 Hz
Infra low ILF 300 Hz - 3 kHz
Very low VLF 3 kHz - 30 kHz
Low LF 30 kHz - 300 kHz Surface/groun
Medium MF 300 kHz - 3 MHz d wave
High HF 3 MHz - 30 MHz Sky wave
Very high VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz Space wave
Ultra high UHF 300 MHz - 3 GHz
Super high SHF 3 GHz - 30 GHz
Extremely high EHF 30 GHz - 300 GHz Satellite wave
Tremendously high THF 300 GHz - 3000 GHz

5
EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE LAYERS
• The Earth's atmosphere is divided into three
separate layers:
• TROPOSPHERE, STRATOSPHERE and
IONOSPHERE.
• The TROPOSPHERE is the region of the
atmosphere where virtually(not real) all weather
phenomena take place. In this region, RF energy is
greatly affected.
• The STRATOSPHERE has a constant temperature
and has little effect on radio waves.
• The IONOSPHERE contains four cloud-like layers of
electrically charged ions which aid(support) in long
distance communications.
LAYERS WITH THEIR DISTANCES
 TYPES OF PROPAGATION

i. Ground-Wave propagation or Surface wave

propagation
ii. Sky wave or Ionospheric propagation (2-30MHz)
iii. Space Wave Propagation (Above 30 MHz)
 Frequency ranges
• The ground wave propagation for frequencies
from up to 2MHz
• The sky wave propagation is suitable for
frequencies from 2MHz to 30MHz
• If >30MHz, EM wave penetrate with sky.
• The space wave propagation for above
30MHz(30MHz to 300MHz)
• TROPOSPEHRIC scatter propagation for >
300MHZ
Types of modes of wave propagation
 i.Ground Waves

• Frequencies up to 2 Mhz.
• Vertically polarized in order to minimize currents induced in
the ground creating losses.
• Ground waves attenuate quickly above 2 Mhz.
• Users: Military (15 KHz and 60 KHz)
• Loran (100 KHz) ( HYPERBOLIC RADIO NAVIGATION SYSTEM)
• AM broadcast.
• GROUND WAVES and SKY WAVES are the
two basic types of radio waves
• That transmit energy from the
transmitting antenna to the receiving
antenna
• GROUND WAVES are composed of two
separate component waves
• One is SURFACE WAVE and other is SPACE
WAVE
GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

At frequencies up to about 2 MHz, the most important

method of propagation is by ground waves which are
vertically polarized.

Direction of wave travel

Increasing
Tilt

Earth
 SURFACE WAVE

SURFACE WAVES travel along the contours of

the Earth by diffraction.
 SPACE WAVE

SPACE WAVES can travel through the air directly to the

receiving antenna or can be reflected from the
surface of the Earth.
 IONOSPHERE WAVE PROPAGATION

• The IONOSPHERE consists of several layers of ions,

formed by the process called ionization.
• IONIZATION is the process of knocking(to against strike with
heavy energy) electrons free from their parent atom, thus
upsetting (disturbing in current function )electrical neutrality.
• This propagation 3 types of layers
• 1-D layer
• 2-E layer
• 3-F layer(F1 and F2)
• Three main regions: D, E, and F layers (F1 and F2)
• The D LAYER is the lowest region of the ionosphere and refracts
signals of low frequencies back to Earth.
• The E LAYER is present during the daylight hours; refracts
signals as high as 20 megahertz back to Earth; and is used for
communications up to 1500 miles.
• Ionization increases with altitude and is greater during the day. D
and E layers diminish at night. Follows 11 year sunspot cycle.
• D and E layers absorb low frequencies( 8-10Mhz) during the day
therefore low frequencies propagate better at night.
• The F LAYER is divided into the F1 and F2 layers during the day
But combine at night to form one layer. This layer is responsible
for high-frequency, long-range transmission.
• Signal returns by a form of refraction.
 Skip zone

As the angle of elevation increases the distance covered decreases and MUF becomes lower. For
frequencies above fc there will be a region close to the transmitter that will not receive the signal. (skip
zone)
 Mechanism of REFRACTION
• Reflection & refraction of radio waves are
function of Frequency of the wave.
• Reflection is observed at lower frequencies(<100
KHz)
• At higher frequencies, ionosphere acts as a
dielectric with variable refractive index causing
Refraction.
REFLECTION (at low frequencies)

Radio waves behave like light waves:

 They reflect from a surface where the angle of
incidence, qi = the angle of reflection, qr . To
minimize reflective losses, the surface should be an
ideal conductor and smooth.

Incident Normal Reflected

Ray Ray

qi qr
Conductor
  ,  

cos     r    sin 2 
 j 0 
RH 
 ,  

cos     r    sin 2 
 j 0 

 ,    ,  
  r   cos     r    sin 2 
 j  0   j  0 
RV 
 ,    ,  
  r   cos     r    sin 2 
 j  0   j  0 

At low freq ,Reflection coeff depends on

i) Frequency ii) Angle of incidence iii)Polarization of wave (V or H)
If R > 1 then Total reflection is observed if the angle of incidence is
greater than Critical angle.
If R < 1 ,then angle of incidence is less than critical angle and decides
the Amount of reflection.
 REFRACTION (at high frequencies)
 Radio waves will bend or refract when they go from
one medium with refractive index, n1 to another with
refractive index, n2. The angles involved are given by
:

sin  1 n2 r2
 
sin  2 n1  r1

If n1=1(free space);Ɵ2=90; then sin Ɵ1= n

 1 1 c c
vp    
  0  r  0 r r r r

 Ne 2 
 n   r ;  r   1  
2 
  0m 
After substituting m , e, ε, w=2πf the expression for n
becomes
81 N
 n   r  1
f 2

81N f 2 cos2 1
 n  sin 1  1  2  N  if 1  0 then
f 81
f2
 N m a x 
81
 DIFFRACTION
 Diffraction is the phenomenon which results in
radio waves that normally travel in a straight line
to bend around an obstacle.
Direction of wave propagation

Obstacle
The highest frequency that is returned to earth in
the vertical direction is called the critical
frequency, fc.
• The CRITICAL ANGLE is the maximum and/or
minimum angle that a radio wave can be
transmitted and still be refracted back to Earth.
• The highest frequency that returns to earth over a
given path is called the maximum usable
frequency (MUF).
• The optimum working frequency (OWF)
= 0.85 MUF
 CRITICAL FREQUENCY (fcr)
F-Layer  The highest frequency that is
reflected back to earth by a
qi layer for vertical incidence is
called the critical frequency, fcr
hv f cr  81 N m a x  9 N m a x

Earth  For a radio wave with freq

d greater than fcr to be reflected
 From geometry (assuming
back to earth, condition is
81N m a x
sin  i  n i.e. sin  i  1 
flat earth): d = 2hv tan qi 2
f
 From theory (secant law): 2
 fc r 
MUF = fcr sec qi  sin  i  1   
 f 
MUF
• The highest frequency that returns to earth by
ionospheric layer for angle of incidence other than for
vertical incidence is called the maximum usable
frequency (MUF).
• Used for Sky wave propagation for specific diastance
b/w two points on earth.
• Range 8 MHz-35 MHz ; extended upto 50 MHz.
sin  i 81 N
n   1 ; for  r  90 , N  N m a x
sin  r f 2
81 N 81 N
 sin  i  i
m a x m a x
1 2
 2
 cos 2

f MUF f MUF
2
fc r
 2
 cos 2
i  f MUF  sec  i f c r
f MUF
f MUF (m a x)  sec 74 0
f c r  3 .6 f c r
SKIP DISTANCE&SKIP ZONE

 

A B

 When the frequencies been changed, the distances will also been
changed. Therefore the network can be newly constructed.
•SKIP DISTANCE is the distance between the transmitter and the point
where the sky wave first returns to Earth.

SKIP ZONE is the zone of silence between the point where the ground
wave becomes too weak for reception and the point where the sky wave
is first returned to Earth.
 OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY
MUF depends on distance b/w Tx & Rxand also upon
state of ionosphere.
MUF varies about 15% of its maximum value due to
daily continuous changes and irregularities in the
ionosphere.
Thus the freq normally used for the ionospheric
propagation is known as Optimum Working Frequency
laying b/w 50% to 85% of the predicted MUF b/w Tx &
Rx points.
OWF varies similar as MUF.
Two freq are used one for day time , while the other for
the night time.
 Lowest Usable Highest Frequency(LUHF)
Attenuation varies inversely with square of freq high value of
OWF.
At High freq near MUF the wave s undergo abnormal
retardation and absorption takes place. Hence the signal received
on earth becomes very less.
A limit on the higher freq used as OWF is denoted as Lowest
Usable Highest Frequency(LUHF)
The LUHF is defined as lowest frequency in the high freq band
that useful, satisfactory reception For a given Tx distance & Pt.
For useful ionospheric propagation the freq should be selected
in b/w MUF and LUHF.
LUHF depends on
i) Effective radiated power
ii)ionosphere characteristics
iii)the radio noise of Rx and type of Rx.
Virtual height of ionospheric layer increases compare to
day time. Thus Skip distance also increases as in Fig.
 Actual and Virtual Height
The height at a point
above the surface at which
the wave bends down to
the earth is called Actual
height or True height.
The height above the
Actual height where the
T
incident and reflected
h,  c
2 waves follow the paths
which are exactly the same
if reflection takes place is
called Virtual Height

Virtual heights of different layers can be found by using echo principle

(Instrument- IONOSONDE gives polts called ionograms)

T
h c
,

2
 Ionospheric Abnormalities
Various problems associated with skywave propagation are due to
abnormalities in ionosphere and are of two types.
1. Normal - seasonal, height as thickness variation , noise.
2.Abnormal - includes Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances,
ionospheric storms, sunspot cycle, tides and winds, fading,
whistles.
 Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances(SID)
With the sudden appearance of strong solar flares i.e., bright
spot on the solar disc, there occurs an intense increase in D layer
ionization. 'An increase in the D-layer, causes increased absorption
of high frequency signals resulting in a complete blackout of all high
frequencies. It is known as “SID“.
Sunspot Cycle
SID are measured by sunspot cycle. In the graph below, critical
frequency of the ionosphere are highest during sunspot maxima and
lowest during sunspot minima. Critical frequency of F2 layer is
minimum at 6 MHz and maximum at 10MHz.
Ionospheric Storms
Ionospheric storms are the disturbances which occur with the rapid and
excessive fluctuations associated with magnetic storms in ionosphere. These
disturbances are dependent on the magnetic storms that occur in earth's
magnetic field. Ionospheric storm disturbance causes absorption of sky waves
and change in critical frequency of F2 and E layers.
These ionospheric storms occur throughout the day and night and may extend up to
two or more days. During ionospheric storms, the ionosphere loses its layered structure.
In order to establish communication in this situation, we have to lower the working
frequency. The virtual height of F2 layer increases because of sudden decrease in critical
frequency due to ionospheric storm.
Ionospheric storm is caused by α and β ray particles that are emitted from
sun. The ionosphere storm effect decreases as one moves from poles to equator.
The ionospheric effect causes narrowing of range of frequencies on radio
transmission.
Tides and Winds
Atmosphere experiences tidal pulls of the sun and moon. As the free period
of isolation of the atmosphere coincides with the solve tidal period of 12 hours,
it results in resonance phenomenon. This becomes more important and
complicated by thermal heating of the atmosphere by the sun rays which
have a 24 hours time period, which is twice that of tidal period.
The F2 layer has the highest speed of tidal motion with lowest particle density sighted at
the height level. Hence, F2 layer suffers maximum from effect of tides and result in
irregularities in its layer and causes a small peak of maximum ionization density in F2
layer at midnight.
Fading
Sky wave propagation largely suffers from fading variations or a fluctuation in the
received signal strength is defined as fading. Wherever the signals that are propagated
through sky wave propagation, at the receiver end the signals or wave follow different
paths due to variations in the height and density of the ionization layer.
Fading is one of the important parameter in sky wave propagation and occurs due to
reflections from the earth.
The values of fading are very small when the variation in signal strength is 20 to 30
dB. Fading can be reduced by using diversity reception.
Types of fading:
1.Selective Fading 2.Interferencs Fading
3.Absorption Fading 4.Polarization Fading
5.Skip Fading
Fundamental equation of Free space Propagation
(FRIIS Transmission equation)
Space wave propagation
Tropospheric region is just 16 km away from the earth's surface.
Space wave propagation consists of two ray paths. They are,
1. Direct path
2. Indirect path.
 The signal from transmitter to the receiver is known as direct path
 signal after reflections from the ground is known as indirect path.
 Due to the reflections from ground, the phase 180° is introduced in the
received signal. The signal at the receiver is a combination of direct and indirect
ray paths.
 The propagation of electromagnetic waves at higher frequencies is done by
space wave propagation, because the ground wave and sky wave propagation
are fail at these frequencies.
 Space wave propagation is also known as line of sight propagation, because at
higher frequencies, electromagnetic wave propagation is limited to the curvature
of earth and line of sight distance.
 The range can be increased with the help of transmitting and receiving antenna
heights. Space wave propagation is practically important at frequencies above 30
MHz.
 It is also known as tropospheric wave propagation, because the waves reach
the receiving point after reflections from tropospheric region.
 In space wave propagation, signal at the receiving point is a combination of direct
and indirect rays. It provides communication over long distances with VHF, UHF and
microwave frequencies, space wave propagation is also known as "line of sight
propagation".
Applications
1. Space wave propagation used in satellite communication.
2. Controls radio traffic between a ground station and a satellite
The Resultant wave at Rx is vector sum of direct and indirect waves, we get
2 2 ht hr 4 ht hr
E R  E 0 cos wt  E 0 cos( wt   ) ;   
 d d
 4 ht hr   2 ht hr 
E R  E 0 cos wt  E 0 cos  wt    2 E 0 sin wt sin  
 d   d 
  2 ht hr  
E R   2 E 0 sin    sin wt
  d 
Above expression indicates resultant of field strength. Actual field strength at a
distance d is given by

2 E0  2ht hr 
Field Strength at Re ceiver  sin   ; sin x  x if x  1
d  d 
2 E0  2ht hr   4ht hr  E0
 Field Strength at Re ceiver     2
d  d    d  d
Effect of Earth’s Curvature, Field Strength Calculations
 Radio Horizon : Line of sight distance (LOS)

Due to curvature of earth , the line of sight transmission is limited to the

horizon. The effect of earth’s atmosphere is to bend the radio wave, making
Radio Horizon to lie beyond the Optical horizon.

The effect of bending of Radio wave while travelling through atmosphere can
be taken into account by assigning a greater radius to the earth that it actually
has and then radio wave is taken to travel in the straight line.
For standard Atmosphere, R’=(4/3) R
 Radio Horizon Optical Horizon
1.Micro waves are not bent or Micro waves are usually bent or
refracted beyond the radio horizon. refracted beyond the optical horizon.
2. This horizon is not visible to our This horizon is visible to our eyes.
eyes, because generally these are
further away from the optical
horizon.
3. The distance to radio horizon The optical horizon is independent of
varies with the atmospheric atmospheric refractive changes.
refractive changes.
R  h 
'
t
2 2
 R '  d 12
2
 d 12  2 R ' ht  ht ;
2
but R '  ht hence R ' ht  ht
 d1  2 R ' ht
similarly d 2  2 R ' hr
now , d m a x  d1  d 2
 d m a x  2 R ' ht  2 R ' hr
4
R'  R ; R  6370 km
3
8 8
 d m a x  Rht  Rhr
3 3
 8 8  3
d m a x   * 6.37 ht  * 6.37 hr 10

 3 3 
 8 8  3
dm a x   * 6.37 ht  * 6.37 hr 10

 3 3 
d m a x  km   4.12  ht  hr 
M-CURVES
M-curves are known as modified index curves. These curves show the variations of
refractive index with height. In order to account for the curvature of earth, the actual
index of refraction modified to another refractive index. Due to the change in index of
refraction, the straight rays are converted into curved rays above flat earth. The effects of
non standard atmospheric conditions can be estimated easily by transforming
temperature data, meteorological data into M-curves. M-curves are used to predict the
type of transmission path for propagation of electromagnetic waves.
Modified Refractive index interms of actual refractive index is given by

Effects produced by atmospheric refraction do not depend on M but depend on the rate
of change of modified refractive index (M) with height (h) i.e. dM/dh.
Characteristics of M-curve

1. Standard propagation occurs, when the modified index of refraction linearly varies with
height. M-curve is a straight line having positive slope.
2. The slope of M-curve decreases near the surface of earth which results in standard
propagation.
3. In order to achieve greater coverage, the slope of M-curve increases near the surface of
the earth.
4. Greater coverage can be achieved when the rays over flat earth are straight and actual
rays have the same curvature as that of the earth.
5. Duct propagation occurs when the rays are curved downward over the flat earth and
the wave tends to be guided along the duct.
6. If the inverted portion of M-curve is elevated above the surface of earth then the duct is
an "elevated duct".
DUCT PROPAGATION (Super Refraction)

TEMPERATURE INVERSION causes channels, or ducts, of cool air

to form between layers of warm air, which can cause radio
waves to travel far beyond the normal line-of-sight distances.
TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION

TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION uses the scattering principle to

achieve beyond the line-of-sight radio communications within
the troposphere.
Thank you