Chapter 4

Energy Analysis of Closed Systems

Course Outcome
• Ability to acquire and explain the basic
concepts in thermodynamics.
• Ability to comprehend and apply the concept
to the actual conditions and problems; i.e.
closed and open systems.
• Ability to apply and correlate the concept with
the appropriate equations and principles to
analyze and solve engineering problems.
Course Learning Outcomes
The student should be able to:
• State the first law of thermodynamics and identify it simply as statement of the
conservation of energy.
• Explain the mechanisms of energy transfer for a closed system.
• Write down the energy balances for a closed system.
• Calculate the boundary work for isochoric, isobaric, isothermal and polytropic
processes for closed systems.
• Define the specific heat at constant volume and the specific heat at constant pressure.
• Relate the specific heats to the calculation of the changes in internal energy and
enthalpy of ideal gases.
• Describe incompressible substances and determine the changes in their internal
energy and enthalpy.
• Solve energy balance problems for closed systems that involve heat and work
interactions for general pure substances, ideal gases, and incompressible substances.
Contents

4.1 First Law of Thermodynamics

4.2 General Energy Balance
4.3 Energy Balance for Closed Systems
4.4 Specific Heat
 4.1 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy principle) provides a
sound basis for studying the relationships among the various forms of energy and
energy interactions.
• The first law states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.
• The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified states of a closed
system, the net work done is the same regardless of the nature of the closed
system and the details of the process.

Energy
cannot be
created or
destroyed; The increase in the energy of a potato
it can only in an oven is equal to the amount of
change heat transferred to it.
forms. 5
 The work
(electrical) done
on an adiabatic
system is equal to
the increase in the
energy of the
system.

In the absence of any

work interactions, the
energy change of a
The work (shaft)
system is equal to the
done on an
net heat transfer.
adiabatic system is
equal to the
increase in the
energy of the
system.
6
 4.2 General Energy Balance

The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of the system during
a process is equal to the difference between the total energy entering and
the total energy leaving the system during that process.

7
Energy Change of a System, Esystem:

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

8
4.3 Energy Balance of Closed System

The energy change of

a system during a
process is equal to
the net work and
heat transfer
between the system
and its surroundings.

The work (boundary) done on an adiabatic

system is equal to the increase in the
energy of the system. 9
Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work output
are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation for

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. closed systems when sign convention is
used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known to
have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof. 10
 Example 2.10
A rigid tank contains a hot
fluid that is cooled while
being stirred by a paddle
wheel. Initially, the internal
energy of the fluid is 800 kJ.
During the cooling process,
the fluid loses 500 kJ of
heat, and the paddle wheel
does 100 kJ of work on the
fluid. Determine the final
internal energy of the fluid.
Neglect the energy stored in
the paddle wheel. 11
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or
compression process:
General analysis for a closed system For a constant-pressure expansion or
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium compression process:
constant-pressure process. Q is to
the system and W is from the 
U
Wb
H
system.
An example of constant-pressure process

12
 Problem 4.31
A substance is contained in a well-insulated
rigid container that is equipped with a stirring
device. Determine the change in the internal
energy of this substance when 15 kJ of work
is applied to the stirring device.

13
Solution

14
 Problem 4.28
Saturated water vapor at 200oC is isobarically condensed
to a saturated liquid in a piston-cylinder device. Calculate
the heat transfer and the work done during this process in
kJ/kg.
Solution
 4.4 Specific Heat
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the temperature of
the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the temperature
of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained
constant.

Constant-volume
and constant-
pressure specific
Specific heat is the energy heats cv and cp
required to raise the (values are for
temperature of a unit mass of helium gas).
a substance by one degree in a
specified way. 17
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
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 INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases, u,
enthalpy change of an
u=u(T) h, cv, and cp vary
ideal gas
with temperature
only. 19
• At low pressures, all real gases approach ideal- • u and h data for a number of gases
gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats have been tabulated.
depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low pressures choosing an arbitrary reference
are called ideal-gas specific heats, or zero- point and performing the
pressure specific heats, and are often denoted integrations by treating state 1 as
cp0 and cv0. the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some gases
(see Table A– In the preparation of ideal-gas
2c for cp tables, 0 K is chosen as the
equations). reference temperature.
20
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an average
value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the specific

heats may be assumed to vary linearly with
temperature.

The relation  u = cv T is
valid for any kind of
process, constant-volume
or not.
21
Three ways of calculating u and h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most accurate
way when tables are readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table A-
2c) as a function of temperature and
performing the integrations. This is very
inconvenient for hand calculations but
quite desirable for computerized
calculations. The results obtained are
very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats. This is
very simple and certainly very
convenient when property tables are
not available. The results obtained are
reasonably accurate if the temperature
interval is not very large. Three ways of calculating u.

22
 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific heat
ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is very
mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium, argon,
etc.), its value is essentially constant at
1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
• Many diatomic gases, including air,
determined from a knowledge of cv
have a specific heat ratio of about 1.4
and R. at room temperature.
23
 Example 4.7
Air at 300 K and 200 kPa is heated at constant
pressure to 600 K. Determine the change in
internal energy of air per unit mass, using
(a) Data from the air table (Table A-17)
(b) The functional form of the specific heat (Table A-2c)
(c) The average specific heat value (Table A-2b)

24
 Example 4.8
An insulated rigid tank initially contains 0.7
kg of helium at 27oC and 350 kPa. A paddle
wheel with a power rating of 0.015 kW is
operated within the tank for 30 min.
Determine
(a) The final temperature
(b) The final pressure of the helium gas

25
 Example 4.10
A piston-cylinder device initially contains air at 150
kPa and 27oC. At this state, the piston is resting
on a pair of stops, and the enclosed volume is 400 L.
The mass of the piston is such that a 350 kPa
pressure is required to move it. The air is now
heated until its volume has doubled. Determine
(a) The final temperature
(b) The work done by the air
(c) The total heat transferred to the air
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 INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS

Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume (or

density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of incompressible

incompressible substances substances are identical and are
remain constant during a denoted by c.
process.
27
 Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 28
 Example 4.12
A 50-kg iron block at 80oC is dropped into
an insulated tank that contains 0.5 m3 of
liquid water at 25oC. Determine the
temperature when thermal equilibrium is
reached.

29