PowerPoint Slides

The Language of Bits

Computer Organisation and Architecture

Smruti Ranjan Sarangi,
IIT Delhi

Chapter 2 The Language of Bits

PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this PowerPoint slide may be displayed, reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, without the
prior written permission of the publisher, or used beyond the limited distribution to teachers and educators permitted by McGraw-Hill for their individual course preparation. PowerPoint Slides are being provided only
to authorized professors and instructors for use in preparing for classes using the affiliated textbook. No other use or distribution of this PowerPoint slide is permitted. The PowerPoint slide may not be sold and may
not be distributed or be used by any student or any other third party. No part of the slide may be reproduced, displayed or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited.
1
 These slides are meant to be used along with the book: Computer
Organisation and Architecture, Smruti Ranjan Sarangi, McGrawHill 2015
Visit: http://www.cse.iitd.ernet.in/~srsarangi/archbooksoft.html
 Outline

 Boolean Algebra
 Positive Integers
 Negative Integers
 Floating-Point Numbers
 Strings

3
What does a Computer Understand ?
 Computers do not understand natural human languages, nor
programming languages
 They only understand the language of bits

Bit 0 or 1

Byte 08 or
bits1

Word 40bytes
or 1

kiloByte 1024
0 or 1bytes

megaByte 10
06or
bytes
1

4
Review of Logical Operations
* A + B (A or B) A B A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

A B A.B
0 0 0

* A.B ( A and B) 1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

5
 Review of Logical Operations - II

A B A NAND B A B A NOR B

0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0

0 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1 1 0

* NAND and NOR operations

* These are universal operations. They can be used to
implement any Boolean function.

6
 Review of Logical Operations

* XOR Operation : (A B)
A B A XOR B

0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

7
 Review of Logical Operations

* NOT operator
* Definition: 0 = 1, and 1 = 0
* Double negation: A = A, NOT of (NOT of A) is equal to
A itself
* OR and AND operators
* Identity: A + 0 = A, and A.1 = A
* Annulment: A + 1 = 1, A.0 = 0

8
* Idempotence: A + A = A, A.A = A, The result of
computing the OR and AND of A with itself is A.
* Complementarity: A + A = 1, A.A = 0
* Commutativity: A + B = B + A, A.B = B.A, the order of
Boolean variables does not matter
* Associativity: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C, A.(B.C) = (A.B).C,
similar to addition and multiplication.
* Distributivity: A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C, A+ (B.C) = (A+B).
(A+C)  Use this law to open up parantheses and
simplify expressions
 De Morgan's Laws
* Two very useful rules

A + B = A.B

A.B = A + B

10
 Consensus Theorem

* Prove :
 X.Y + X.Z + Y.Z = X.Y + X.Z

11
 Outline

* Boolean Algebra
* Positive Integers
* Negative Integers
* Floating Point Numbers
* Strings

12
Representing Positive Integers
* Ancient Roman System

Symbol I V X L C D M
Value 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000

* Issues :
* There was no notion of 0
* Very difficult to represent large numbers
* Addition, and subtraction (very difficult)
13
 Indian System

Bakshali numerals, 7th century AD

* Uses the place value system

5301 = 5 * 103 + 3 * 102 + 0 * 101 + 1*100

Example in base 10

14
Number Systems in Other Bases

* Why do we use base 10 ?

* because ...

15
What if we had a world in which ...

* People had only two fingers.

16
 Binary Number System

* They would use a number system with

base 2.
Number in decimal Number in binary
5 101
100 1100100
500 111110100
1024 10000000000

17
 MSB and LSB

* MSB (Most Significant Bit)  The leftmost bit

of a binary number. E.g., MSB of 1110 is 1
* LSB (Least Significant Bit)  The rightmost
bit of a binary number. E.g.,
LSB of 1110 is 0

18
 Hexadecimal and Octal Numbers

* Hexadecimal numbers 
* Base 16 numbers – 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
* Start with 0x

* Octal Numbers
* Base 8 numbers – 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
* Start with 0

19
 Examples

  Convert 110010111 to the octal format : = 0627

  Convert 111000101111 to the hex format : = 0xE2F

 Outline

* Boolean Algebra
* Positive Integers
* Negative Integers
* Floating Point Numbers
* Strings

21
 Representing Negative Integers

* Problem
* Assign a binary representation to a negative integer
* Consider a negative integer, S
* Let its binary representation be : xnxn-1….x2x1 (xi=0/1)
* We can also expand it to represent an unsigned, +ve,
number, N
* If we interpret the binary sequence as :
* An unsigned number, we get N
* A signed number, we get S

22
* We need a mapping :
* F : S → N (mapping function)
* S → set of numbers (both positive and negative –
signed)
* N → set of positive numbers (unsigned)

mapping
Set of
Set of +ve
+ve and -ve
numbers
numbers

23
Properties of the Mapping Function
* Preferably, needs to be a one to one mapping
* All the entries in the set, S, need to be mapped
* It should be easy to perform addition and
subtraction operations on the representation of
signed numbers
* Assume an n bit number system

SgnBit(u) = 1,u<0
0 , u >= 0

24
Sign-Magnitude Base Representation

F (u )  SgnBit (u )* 2 n 1  | u |

sign bit |u|

* Examples :
* -5 in a 4 bit number system : 1101
* 5 in a 4 bit number system : 0101
* -3 in a 4 bit number system : 1011

25
 Problems
* There are two representations for 0
* 000000
* 100000

* Addition and subtraction are difficult

* The most important takeaway point :
* Notion of the sign bit

26
 1's Complement Representation

 u, u  0
F (u )  
 ~ (| u |) or ( 2 n
 1 | u |), u  0

* Examples in a 4 bit number system

* 3 → 0011
* -3 → 1100
* 5 → 0101
* -5 → 1010

27
 Problems
* Two representations for 0
* 0000000
* 1111111
* Easy to add +ve numbers
* Hard to add -ve numbers
* Point to note :
* The idea of a complement

28
 Bias Based Approach
F(u) =u+bias
* Consider a 4 bit number system with bias equal
to 7
* -3 → 0100
* 3 → 1010

* F(u+v) = F(u) + F(v) – bias

* Multiplication is difficult

29
 The Number Circle

0000 (0)
1111 (15)
0001 (1)
1110 (14)
0010 (2)
1101 (13) 0011 (3)
Increment
1100 (12) 0100 (4)

0101 (5)
1011 (11)

0110 (6)
1010 (10)
0111 (7)
1001 (9)
1000 (8)

Clockwise: increment
Anti-clockwise: decrement

30
Number Circle with Negative Numbers
0000 (0)
1111 (-1)
0001 (1)
1110 (-2)
0010 (2)
1101 (-3) 0011 (3)
Increment
1100 (-4) 0100 (4)

0101 (5)
1011 (-5)

0110 (6)
1010 (-6)
0111 (7)
1001 (-7)
1000 (-8)

break point

31
 Using the Number Circle
* To add M to a number, N
* locate N on the number circle
* If M is +ve
* Move M steps clockwise
* If M is -ve
* Move M steps anti-clockwise, or 2n – M steps
clockwise
*
If we cross the break-point
* We have an overflow
* The number is too large/ too small to be represented
32
 2's Complement Notation
ìï
u, 0 £u £ 2 n- 1 - 1
F(u) =í n
ï
î 2 - | u |, - 2 n- 1
£u<0
* F(u) is the index of a point on the number
circle. It varies from 0 to 2n - 1
* Examples
* 4 → 0100
* -4 → 1100
* 5 → 0101
* -3 → 1101
33
Properties of the 2's Complement Notation

* Range of the number system :

* -2(n-1) to 2n-1 – 1
* There is a unique representation for
0 → 000000
* msb of F(u) is equal to SgnBit(u)
* Refer to the number circle
* For a +ve number, F(u) < 2(n-1). MSB = 0
* For a -ve number, F(u) >= 2(n-1). MSB = 1
34
 Properties - II

* Every number in the range [-2(n-1),2(n-1) – 1]

* Has a unique mapping
* Unique point in the number circle

* a ≡ b → (a = b mod 2n)
* ≡ means same point on the number circle
* F(-u) ≡2n – F(u)
* Moving F(u) steps counter clock wise is the same
as moving 2n – F(u) steps clockwise from 0

35
 Prove : F(u+v) ≡ F(u) + F(v)

*Start at point u
*
Its index is F(u)
*
If v is +ve,
* move v points clockwise. We arrive at
F(u+v).
* Its index is equal to (F(u) + v) mod 2n.
* Since v = F(v), we have F(u+v) = ( F(u) + F(v) )
mod 2n

36
 Prove : F(u+v) ≡ F(u) + F(v)
*
If v is -ve,
* move |v| points anti-clockwise.
* Same as moving 2n – |v| points clockwise.
* We arrive at F(u+v).
* F(v) = 2n -|v|
* The index – F(u+v) – is equal to:
* (F(u) + 2n – |v|) mod 2n= (F(u) + F(v))

mod 2n

37
 Subtraction
* F(u-v) ≡ F(u) + F(-v)
≡ F(u) + 2n - F(v)

* Subtraction is the same as addition

* Compute the 2's complement of F(v)

38
 Prove that :

* Prove that :
F(u*v) ≡ F(u) * F(v)

39
 Computing the 2's Complement
* 2n – u
= 2n – 1 - u + 1
= ~u + 1
* ~u (1's complement)

* 1's complement of 0100 2's complement of

0100

1111 1011

0100 0001

1011 1100

40
 Sign Extension
* Convert a n bit number to a m bit 2's complement
number (m > n)
* +ve
* Add (m-n) 0s in the msb positions
* Example, convert 0100 to 8 bits → 0000 0100

* -ve
* F(u) = 2n – |u| (n bit number) system
* Need to calculate F'(u) = 2m -|u|

41
 Sign Extension - II

* 2m – u – (2n – u)
= 2m – 2n
= 2n + 2(n+1) + … + 2(m-1)
= 11110000
m-n n

F'(u) = F(u) + 2m – 2n

42
 Sign Extension - III

* To convert a negative number :

* Add (m-n) 1s in the msb positions

* In both cases, extend the sign bit by :

* (m-n) positions

43
 The Overflow Theorem
* Add : u + v
* If uv < 0, there will never be an
overflow
* Let us go back to the number circle
* There is an overflow only when we cross
the break-point
* If uv = 0, one of the numbers is 0 (no
overflow)
* If uv > 0, an overflow is possible
44
Number Circle: uv < 0

0
-1 1

-2
2

-3 u=1
-4
3
v=-4

45
 Number Circle: uv > 0

0
-1 1

-2
2

-3 u=1
-4
3
v=3

overflow

46
 Conditions for an Overflow

*uv <= 0
* Never

* uv > 0 ( u and v have the same sign)

* The sign of the result is different from the sign of u

47
 Outline

* Boolean Algebra
* Positive Integers
* Negative Integers
* Floating-Point Numbers
* Strings

48
 Floating-Point Numbers

* What is a floating-point number ?

* 2.356
* 1.3e-10
* -2.3e+5

* What is a fixed-point number ?

* Number of digits after the decimal point is fixed
* 3.29, -1.83

49
Generic Form for Positive Numbers

* Generic form of a number in base 10

n
A =å xi10 i
i=- n

* Example :
* 3.29 = 3 * 100 + 2*10-1 + 9*10-2

50
 Generic Form in Base 2
* Generic form of a number in base 2
n
A = å xi 2 i
i=- n

Number Expansion
0.375 2–2 +2 –3
1 20
1.5 20 +2 –1
2.75 21 +2 –1 +2 –2
17.625 24 +2 0 +2 –1 +2 –3

51
 Binary Representation

* Take the base 2 representation of a floating-

point (FP) number
* Each coefficient is a binary digit

Number Expansion BinaryRepresentation

0.375 2–2 + 2–3 0.011
1 20 1.0
1.5 20 + 2–1 1.1
2.75 21 +2–1 + 2 -2 10.11
17.625 24 +2 0 + 2 –1+2 -3 10001.101

52
 Normalized Form
* Let us create a standard form of all floating
point numbers

A =(- 1)S *P *2 X , (P =1+ M, 0 £M <1, X Î Z)

* S → sign bit, P → significand

* M → mantissa, X → exponent, Z → set of
integers

53
 Examples (in decimal)
* 1.3827 * 1e-23
* Significand (P) = 1.3827
* Mantissa (M) = 0.3827
* Exponent (X) = -23
* Sign (S) = 0
* -1.2*1e+5
* P = 1.2 , M = 0.2
* S = 1, X = 5

54
 IEEE 754 Format

* General Principles
* The significand is of the form : 1.xxxxx

* No need to waste 1 bit representing (1.) in the

significand

* We can just save the mantissa bits

* Need to also store the sign bit (S), exponent (X)

55
 IEEE 754 Format - II

Sign(S) Exponent(X) Mantissa(M)

1 8 23

* sign bit – 0 (+ve), 1 (-ve)

* exponent, 8 bits
* mantissa, 23 bits

56
Representation of the Exponent

* Biased representation
* bias = 127
* E = X + bias
* Range of the exponent
* 0 – 255 ⟷ -127 to +128
* Examples :
* X = 0, E = 127
* X = -23, E = 104
* X = 30 , E = 157

57
 Normal FP Numbers
* Have an exponent between -126 and +127
* Let us leave the exponents : -127, and +128 for
special purposes.
S E- bias
A =(- 1) *P *2
(P =1+ M, 0 £M <1, X Î Z,1 £ E £ 254)

58
* What is the largest +ve normal FP number ?

* What is the smallest –ve normal FP number ?

59
Special Floating Point Numbers
E M Value
255 0  if S = 0
255 0 –  if S = 1
255 0 NAN(Not a number)
0 0 0
0 0 Denormal number

* NAN + x= NAN 1/0 = ∞

* 0/0 = NAN -1/0 = -∞
* sin-1(5) = NAN

60
 Denormal Numbers

f = 2^(-126);
g = f/2;
if (g == 0)
print ("error");

* Should this code print ''error'' ?

* How to stop this behaviour ?

61
 Denormal Numbers - II
A =(- 1)S * P * 2 - 126
(P =0 + M, 0 £M <1)

* Significand is of the form : 0.xxxx

* E = 0, X = -126 (why not -127?)
* Smallest +ve normal number : 2-126
* Largest denormal number :
* 0.11...11 * 2-126 = (1 – 2-23)*2-126
* =2-126 - 2-149

62
 Example

Find the ranges of denormal numbers.

Answer
• For positive denormal numbers, the range is [2-149 , 2-126 – 2-149 ]
• For negative denormal numbers, the range is [-2-149 , -2-126 + 2-149 ]
Denormal Numbers in the Number Line

Denormal numbers

Normal FP numbers

Extend the range of normal floating point numbers.

64
 Double Precision Numbers
Field Size(bits)
S 1
E 11
M 52

●
Approximate range of doubles
●
± 21023 = ± 10308
●
This is a lot !!!

65
 Floating Point Mathematics

A = 2^(50);
B = 2^(10);
C = (B+A)- A;

* C will be computed to be 0
* There is no way of representing A+B in the IEEE 754 format

* A smart compiler can reorder the operations to

increase precision
* Floating point math is approximate

66
 Outline

* Boolean Algebra
* Positive Integers
* Negative Integers
* Floating Point Numbers
* Strings

67
 ASCII Character Set
* ASCII – American Standard Code for Information
Interchange
* It has 128 characters
* First 32 characters (control operations)
* backspace (8)
* line feed (10)
* escape (27)
* Each character is encoded using 7 bits

68
ASCII Character Set
Character Code Character Code Character Code
a 97 A 65 0 48
b 98 B 66 1 49
c 99 C 67 2 50
d 100 D 68 3 51
e 101 E 69 4 52
f 102 F 70 5 53
g 103 G 71 6 54
h 104 H 72 7 55
i 105 I 73 8 56
j 106 J 74 9 57
k 107 K 75 ! 33
l 108 L 76 # 35
m 109 M 77 $ 36
n 110 N 78 % 37
o 111 O 79 & 38
p 112 P 80 ( 40
q 113 Q 81 ) 41
r 114 R 82 * 42
s 115 S 83 + 43
t 116 T 84 , 44
u 117 U 85 . 46
v 118 V 86 ; 59
w 119 W 87 = 61
x 120 X 88 ? 63
y 121 Y 89 @ 64
z 122 Z 90 ^ 94

69
 Unicode Format
* UTF-8 (Universal character set Transformation Format)
* UTF-8 encodes 1,112,064 characters defined in the
Unicode character set. It uses 1-6 bytes for this purpose.
E.g.अ आ क ख, ௹ ᇜ ಞஸ
* UTF-8 is compatible with ASCII. The first 128 characters
in UTF-8 correspond to the ASCII characters. When using
ASCII characters, UTF-8 requires just one byte. It has a
leading 0.
* Most of the languages that use variants of the Roman
script such as French, German, and Spanish require 2
bytes in UTF-8. Greek, Russian (Cyrillic), Hebrew, and
Arabic, also require 2 bytes.
70
 UTF-16 and 32
* Unicode is a standard across all browsers and operating
systems

* UTF-8 has been superseded by UTF-16, and UTF-32

* UTF-16 uses 2 byte or 4 byte encodings (Java and Windows)

* UTF-32 uses 4 bytes for every character (rarely used)

71
THE END

72