PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC

CONTROLLER
20MAR22
Module-1
Technical Definition: PLC, advantages,
characteristic functions L1, of A PLC,
chronological evolution of PLC, types of PLC,
unitary PLC, modular small PLC, medium PLC,
large PLC block diagram Of PLC : input / output
( I/O) se processor section, power supply, memory.
Central processing, processor soft executive
software, multitasking, languages, ladder language.
Input and output contact program symbols,
numbering system of inputs and outputs, program
form.
Module-2
Introduction To Logic: Equivalent ladder diagram of
AND gate, equivalent ladder diagram of OR gate,
equivalent ladder diagram of NOT gate, equivalent
ladder diagram of XOR gate, equivalent ladder
diagram of NAND gate, equivalent ladder diagram of
NOR gate, equivalent ladder diagram to demonstrate
de-morgan theorem, ladder design. Timer and its
classification: characteristics of PLC timer, functions in
timer, resetting retentive and non-retentive,
classification of PLC timer, or delay and off delay
timers timer-on delay, timer off delay, retentive and
non-retentive timers, format of a timer instruction.
Module-3
PLC Counter: operation of PLC counter, counter
parameters, Counter Instructions Overview Count up
(CTU) Count Down (CTD). Introduction to comparison
instructions, discussions on comparison instructions,
“EQUAL." Or "EQU" instruction, "NOT EQUAL" or
"NEQ" instruction, "LESS THAN" or "LES"
instruction, "LESS THAN OR EQUAL" or "LEQ"
Instruction, GREATER THAN" or "GRT" instruction,
"GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO" or "GRQ"
Instruction, "MASKED COMPARISON FOREQUAL"
or "MEQ" instruction, "LIMIT TEST" or "LIM"
instruction.
Module-4
Data Movement Instructions, logical instructions, mathematical
instructions. Special mathematical instructions, data handling
instructions, program flow control instructions, Proportional
Integral Derivative (PID) Instruction. introduction to
classification of I/O, I/O system overview, practical I/O system
and its mapping addressing local and expansion I/O, input-
output systems, direct I/O, Parallel I/O systems serial I/O
systems. Sinking and sourcing, discrete input module, rectifier
with filter, threshold detection, isolation, logic section
specifications of discrete input module and output modules.
Specifications of analog input module, types of analog input
module special input modules, analog output module, I/O
modules in hazardous locations power supply requirements,
power supply configuration, filter.
Module-5
Industrial Communication and Networking : Evolution of
industrial control process, types of communication interface
types of networking channels, parallel communication interface,
IEEE- 488 bus, devices useable with IEEE - 488, Handshaking
process, interface management lines, serial communication
interface. communication mode, synchronization and timing in
communication, synchronous and asynchronous transmissions
compared, different recommended standards compared
software protocol, industrial network, network topology, media
access methods, open system interconnection (OSI) network
model, network components, advantage of standardized
industrial network, industrial network, controller area network
(CAN), AS-I Interface.
Introduction to PLC

The hydramatic Division of the General Motors Corporation

specified the design criteria for the first programmable controller
come in 1968.
Programmable logic controllers, also called programmable
controllers or PLCs, are solid-state members of the computer
family, using integrated circuits instead of electromechanical
devices to implement control functions.
They are capable of storing instructions, such as sequencing, timing,
counting, arithmetic, data manipulation, and communication, to
control industrial machines and processes
Purposes - Initially designed to replace relay logic boards,
Sequence device actuation, Coordinate activities accepts input from
a series of switches, Sends output to devices or relays
What is PLC?
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is a digital computer
used for the automation of various electro-mechanical processes
in industries.
These controllers are specially designed to survive in harsh
situations and shielded from heat, cold, dust, and moisture etc.
PLC consists of a microprocessor which is programmed using the
computer language.
The program is written on a computer and is downloaded to the
PLC via cable.
These loaded programs are stored in non – volatile memory of the
PLC.
During the transition of relay control panels to PLC, the hard
wired relay logic was exchanged for the program fed by the user.
A visual programming language known as the Ladder Logic was
created to program the PLC.
Advantages of PLCs over electromagnetic
relays
• Ability to interface / communicate with computers but not with
reley.
• Simple programming is possible using ladder logic but not with
relay.
• Plc have High reliability
• High controllability due to the use of timers and counters.
• Easy maintenance
• Rugged construction - can operate in extremely harsh conditions
• Small size
• Easy expandability
• Economical in long term
Plc Design and Operation Characteristics
Information Technology
Introduction
PLC’s were developed in the 1969 and are widely used in
industry all over the world.
They come in many different forms such as self contained
units which are used for smaller input/outputs to modular
systems which can be used for larger inputs/outputs.
A basic PLC system is made up of numerous components
such as Central processing unit (CPU), memory, power
supply unit, input/output interface section,
communication interface and the programming device.
PLC Design and Operation
Characteristics
There are 3 processes within the operation of the plc:-
Scans or reads from the input devices
Executes or solves the program logic
Updates or writes to the output devices
There are three types of PLC mechanical design
systems which are:-
Unitary
Modular
Rack mounted
Design Characteristics
Unitary
A simple type of controller which has basic components
within a single housing such as processer, which runs the
software program, connecting ports for the input/output
connections.
These PLCs are typically attached to the device being
controlled.
Pro: Small, lightweight, cheap, tough, simple, easy to
replace.
Con: limited function, poor interfaces, limited
communication and data types, limited memory and
program size, fixed inputs and outputs, not expandable.
Modular
This PLC contains core functions such as, a base unit,
power regulations, the computer processor and input
connections.
It contains many modules which can be joined together
and can form a customized controller.
This modular can be customized and changed easily.
 Rack Mounting
Similar to the modular PLC but is implemented differently.
The difference is that the rack mounting PLC keeps
each module separate where the modular PLC has a
base unit directly.
The modules are stored in racks and are connected through
a network.
This allows for large systems to be built which and can
be easily removed and inserted.
Pro: Expandable, powerful, full function, full
communication, good interface, essentially unlimited
input/output, all functions customizable.
Con: Large, expensive, fragile
Input and Output Devices
Input/output devices allow connections between
systems made through channels to devices such as
sensors which are input devices and motors and
solenoids which are output devices.
Programs can be entered through the programme panel
for the input/output devices.
Input Devices
Mechanical switches
A switch with on/off signals causing a switch to open
or close which can be used to indicate the presence of
a piece of work on something like a machining table.
The piece of work against the switch on the table
meaning for it to close and vice versa.
limit switch
A switch that can be actuated by a roller or lever and
detects the presence of a moving part.
Liquid-level switches
This switch is used in something like a tank with a liquid
and often a float is used to determine the level of the
liquid and the movement can trigger switches.
Proximity switches
Normally more suited for metallic objects and switch is
triggered without making contact.
Reed Switches
These are magnetized switches and when the coil is close
to the switch they become magnetized and are attract each
other.
Output Devices
Relay
Relays are used to control large current or voltage and to isolate the
power used to initiate the switching action from that of the
controlled power. The switch works by a magnetic field pulling the
contacts to close which is produced by a current passing through a
solenoid.
Motors
The rotation of a motor is generated through coils of wire with a
magnetic core and the armature is mounted on bearings and a
magnetic field is produced causing monitor to turn.
Directional Control Valves
The directional control valve which is solenoid operated directs
flow to desired destination.
Transducers
A device that converts physical quantity into its
corresponding electrical signal.
Passive Type Transducers
Resistance Variation Type
Resistance strain gauge
Resistance Thermometer
Capacitance Variation Type
Variable capacitance pressure gauge
Dielectric gauge
Inductance Variation Type
Eddy current transducer
Variable reluctant type
Proximity inductance type
Voltage and Current Type
Photo-emissive cell
Hall effect
Active Type Transducers
Photo-voltaic cell
Thermopile
Piezoelectric type
Moving coil type
Communication Links

There are many communication ports built into a PLC and

the 9-pin RS-232 is normally the one used but the EIA-485
or Ethernet is an option.
Most PLCs in this day in age uses the network to
communicate to other systems such as SCADA (Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition) system or web browser
Profibus System
This is deemed to be the fastest fieldbus operation in the
market today and its messaging format is designed for high
speed serial I/O in factory and building automation
applications.
AS-Interface System
This is a safety/emergency stop function in machinery and all
communicating safety devices follow all normal data rules.
The dynamic data changes is verified by the required level of
data and this technology is called safety at work act and can all
be connected to the same network.
There are four basic components that make up the AS-Interface:
Scanners and Gateways (also called masters)
Power supplies and repeaters
Modules (also called slaves)
Network cable, installation hardware and useful tool
(infrastructure)
Master/Slave
This is a form of communication and controls one or more devices or
processes in a computer network. The direction of control is always
from the master to the slave.
Screened Twisted Pair Cable
This is a cable mainly used for ethernet and the structure of the cable
and has four twisted pair which is protected by a shield to reduce
magnetic interference (EMI) radiation and susceptibility to outside
noise.
Coaxial Cable
This cable is used as a transmission line for radio frequency signals
and can be used for many applications such as computer networking
and antennas. It has an inner conductor surrounded by a flexible,
tubular insulating layer protected by a shield.
Ribbon Cable
These are normally used mainly in computers and
usually link up hard drives and CD drives. It a flat
cable with many conducting wires running parallel to
each other.
Internal Architecture
Central Processing Unit - CPU
This is the brain of a PLC and is normally one of the microcontrollers and
they come in 16-bit and 32-bit. The CPU takes control of many
applications including communication, program execution, memory
operation, overseeing input and setting output and many more. The CPU
also does numerous checkups such as a memory check up to ensure there
is no damage and this is done for safety reasons. The PLC is also checked
for errors by the CPU to ensure that faults are picked up early and
normally the PLC controller has warning light to give the user an
indication of these faults.
Memory
PLC memories can be divided in 5 different categories which are stated
below. All PLCs contain both RAM and ROM and the size can vary and is
determined by the size of the unit.
Executive Memory
This is always in the ROM and once programmed it rarely
needs changing. This does all the scanning in a PLC and it
tells the microprocessor to read each user instructions. The
I/O status is also checked by this and also it monitors the
current health and safety of a system and all components.
System memory
A section of RAM is installed for this and is used to ensure
the operating system function runs as it should. It is used to
store results and information when the programmer performs
its duties.
I/O Status Memory - I/O Image Table
A portion of the RAM is used for this to determine the
current I/O status.
Data Memory
Timers, counters, mathematics and process parameter
are required so memory is need for this.
User Program Memory
This is storage allocated for the user programmes and
when the programme is opened it instructs the
microprocessor to scan and find the instructions.
Opto Isolator
This is a light emitted diode and a photo transistor
which is separated by a distance of a very thin piece of
glass on a chip.
The LED is normally connected to the output devices
and the photo transistor is normally connected to the
input.
It is used to isolate a device from one another in
high electromagnetic noise areas or vibration and it
does this by sending a signal and the purpose of this
is to save the computer.
Input and Output Units
Connections can be made through input/output cannels to input
devices such as sensors and output devices such as motors. These
units provide a communication between the system and the outside
world. Sensors and actuators can normally be connected to the
units without the need for extra circuitry because the
input/output channels provide isolation and signal
conditioning function.
Shift registers
Provides information concerning an item which is determined at
one point in a process to another point later in the process. The
information which is concerned could be something like size,
weight, color or any other relevant parameters in the process.
 Operational Characteristics
Scanning
Step 1
CHECK INPUT STATUS - First the PLC takes a look at each input to
determine if it is on or off. In other words, is the sensor connected to
the first input on? How about the second input? How about the third...
It records this data into its memory to be used during the next step.
Step 2
EXECUTE PROGRAM - Next the PLC executes your program one
instruction at a time. Maybe your program said that if the first input
was on then it should turn on the first output. Since it already knows
which inputs are on/off from the previous step it will be able to decide
whether the first output should be turned on based on the state of the
first input. It will store the execution results for use later during the
next step.
Step 3
UPDATE OUTPUT STATUS - Finally the PLC updates the
status of the outputs. It updates the outputs based on which
inputs were on during the first step and the results of
executing your program during the second step. Based on the
example in step 2 it would now turn on the first output
because the first input was on and your program said to turn
on the first output when this condition is true.
PLC Information and Communication
Techniques
Forms of Signal
There are a lot of different types of signals that PLCs can read
and write.
The two most basic signals are discrete (digital) and analogue.

Discrete (digital) means on or off so when the input is

switched on the output of the system will start something like a
motor.
Analogue are signals that have a number of different values
between two limits such as temperature or pressure
Digital is a sequence of pulses
Number Systems
Decimal
Every day we use decimal numbers to count things
like in mathematics in a school or counting the cost on
receipts from purchases.
The word ‘deci’ means 10 so that means there are 10
digits in the decimal number system.
So with a base number of 10 the number system would
be:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Digit Weighting
In a number system there is a weight value assigned to
each digit so if the decimal is base 10 numbers the
weight of each digit would be power of 10.
There is also a position number for each digit so the
first digit on the right is the position zero then the
next would be position one, then the next position
two and so on.
 Binary
PLC’s, computers and digital devices all use a number system call binary
and this works on a base-2 system so there will be two valid digits 0 and 1.
Each bit has a position and weight value assigned to it and binary is a base-
2 number system so therefore the weight of each bit is 2 raised to the power
of the bit position.
One digit of binary is called a bit. Bits are used in groups to represent all
other numbers. Bit grouping nomenclature is as follows:
1 binary digit is a bit
4-bits is a nibble (term is not used often)
8-bits is a byte
16-bits is a word
32-bits is a double word or DWORD
64-bits is a quad word or QWORD
Below are two formats that binary numbers can be
written:
10110012 or 1011001b
Below is a figure of a 16-bit binary which shows the
terminology and the weight values of each bit, zero being
far right and 16 far left.
Hexadecimal
Hexadecimal is a base-16 number system and most
modern day PLC’s use this.
This system can be written in two formats as shown
below:
2416 or 24h
Below is a table showing 4-bits of binary
corresponding to hex digits:
Hex Number
4-bit Binary
0
0000
1
0001
2
0010
3
0011
4
0100
5
0101
6
0110
7
0111
8
1000
9
1001
A (10)
1010
B (11)
1011
C (12)
1100
D (13)
1101
E (14)
1110
F (15)
1111
Each digit in a hexadecimal number has a weight Value. The weight of a hex digit is
the base raised to the power of the digit position. The figure below depicts an
example.
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Hexadecimal Weighting
Octal
This is used in various PLC’s but it is not as common as the
hexdecimal. This uses an eight numbering system from zero to
seven and the column weight are 1, 8, 64, 512, etc.
BCD (Binary Coded Decimal)
This uses a four binary bit for each digit and does not use a base
number system only represent decimal digits. This method is
very popular when numbers are to be output or input to the
computer. Below is an example of a BCD number system which
shows there are four digits s0 116-bits are required:
Protocols
RS232
This was once used in computer serial ports and now used for other
devices such as modem and printer connections. The RS232 is used for
serial binary single-ended data and control signals between Data Terminal
Equipment and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment.
IEE488
This is used as a short range digital communication and was created in the
1960’s. It is still in use in the automation industry for test equipment and
is commonly known as General Purpose Interface Bus.
RS422
The RS422 has long range capabilities and can send digital signals as
long as 1500 meters at a speed up to 10 million bits per second.
Converters may be used to extend the range of connections to systems or
they can be directly interconnected.
Universal Serial Bus (USB)
This was developed in the 1990’s and has replaced
many earlier interfaces like serial and parallel ports. It
was designed for connection of many computer
devices such as keyboards, printers, disk drives and
many more.
PLC Programming Techniques
Method of Programming
Ladder and Logic Diagrams
This is used for the development of software in PLC’s used in
industrial control applications. It uses graphical diagrams based on
circuit diagrams of relay logic hardware.
Ladder Diagram
The most used method in PLC’s and main programming method in
industrial controls. The diagram looks like a wiring schematic for a
relay circuit with the power lines on the left and the outputs on the
right.
Function Block Diagram
This uses blocks for each function and shows more complex
sequences for the input and outputs and the lines between each
block shows what each output will do and what affects each input.
Sequential Function Chart
This looks similar to a flow chart but it is more complex and has three
primary elements being steps, actions and transition.
Each step in the process contains the logic for a particular portion.
The actions are the individual activities of performing step.
Transition moves the process from one step to the next.
Structured Text
This is not often used with PLC’s and is just a text language but some
manufacturers do allow it within the programming software in PLC’s.
Instruction List
Instruction list closely resembles Assembly language and is probable
the most powerful and complicated of methods. This process is handy
for processes that repeat small functions often.
Associated Elements
Timers
The control of a motor or pump may need to operate at
different intervals. This is where Timers come in
because Timers control time and they count in seconds
or fraction of seconds using the internal CPU clock
Counters
Counters allow input signal to be counted for things
like people walking through a door or items passing on
a conveyer belt.
Flip Flop
Flip Flops are an important starting point of a digital
electronics system used in computers, communications and
many others. It’s a circuit which has two stable states and
used to store state information. The circuit can change state
by signals applied to numerous control inputs and will have
two outputs.
Shift Register
The term register is a word in electronic term as storage for
data and an internal relay is such a device. A number of
internal relays grouped together which allow stored bits to be
shifted from one relay to another.
 PLC Design Characteristics and Functions
Speaking about PLC design characteristics, knowing about the
functions of PLC is also very important.
The main function of PLC is to control several tasks.
This will result in increasing the productivity.
Speaking about characteristics of PLCs, the most popular
characteristic is its resistance to some extreme conditions of
moisture, dust, electrical noise and heat.
PLCs have been used to replace thousands of relays so that we can
get increased productivity.
As you may already know, PLC is specifically designed to replace
thousands of relays. Speaking about its user interface, it is intended
to communicate and interact with the people with different purposes.
The main purpose of PLC is to optimize the energy
efficiency and system cost.
PLC is an emerging technology that is getting more and
more popular.
There are also some improvements that have been made in
order to give better results for the performance of PLCs.
Overall PLCs have become a popular choice among people
who want to increase the productivity in automation
industry.
For those who want to use a PLC, they should understand
first about PLC design
PLC Design Characteristics and Its Evolution
Knowing how effective PLC design characteristics can be will
help us understand on how to deal with PLCs.
Creating a system that is effective and efficient is the key of
using PLCs.
For more information how PLCs work, the first thing we
should do is to understand on how to use PLC programming.
As you may already know, there are some methods and
designs we can consider.
With some advantages and benefits offered by PLCs, it is not
really surprising that PLCs are getting more and more popular.
PLC design characteristics, PLC methods and benefits of
PLCs are some aspects we should know when dealing with
PLCs.
Programmable Logic Controllers, Part 2:
Evolution and history
The programmable logic control (PLC) is the controller for many
industrial processes; it is tightly focused and optimized for the task
due to its rugged electrical, software, mechanical, and thermal
design.
Part 1 of this FAQ looked at the basics of the PLC, its attributes, and
virtues. Part 2 looks at how the PLC has changed from its inception,
the present market, and the history of the PLC.
Q: Programmable products and their applications have changed
dramatically in the past decades, along with expectations. How
has the PLC changed?
A: First, PLCs support industrial network such as RS-485, Profibus,
Modbus, USB, and even Ethernet, so connectivity is not an issue as
it was in the early when they were mostly standalone systems).
Second, they now support many more I/O points and types. For
example, they easily handle analog signals such as temperature,
flow, and pressure, and analog outputs such as proportional
valves, whereas the first PLCs handled only digital signals
(on/off) and could only provide digital outputs.
Q: What about processing?
A: PLCs do not need the high-performance computational power
of advanced PCs, nor do they need gaming-class graphics
processors. But they are now expected to implement more
sophisticated algorithms as part of the process-control function,
so they now have higher-performance processors or coprocessors.
Newer PLCs can scan through a ladder of hundreds of rungs in
under a msec.
Q: Are they still restricted to ladder-logic programming?
A: Not at all. PLCs are now available with various high-level languages. Not only does
this speed the programming itself, but it also allows for transportability between PLCs
made from different vendors. This is a major advantage, although users tend to stay
with a vendor are already using. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
has developed a set of standards for programmable control systems, adding to their
utility and versatility.
Q: Who are the key vendors in the PLC market?
A: There are many, among them Honeywell International, Mitsubishi Electric
Corporation, Schneider Electric, Omron Corporation, Rockwell Automation, Siemens
AG, ABB Ltd. General Electric, Hitachi Industrial Equipment Systems Co., Ltd., and
Allen Bradley.
Q: Still, it seems that PCs are a better choice than PLCs, as their high volumes
lead to lower costs. Is that the case?
A: Again, the real-world virtues of the PLC, in terms of hardware ruggedness, analog
and digital I/O capability and compatibility, software integrity, packaging, and more,
still makes the PLC the unit of choice for many industrial situations. There are many
market studies available; this one from IHS Technology says that it is a solid growth
market, Figure 1.
Fig 1: This graph shows the recent and near-future projected market for
various aspects of the PLC market. (Image source: IHS Technology)
Q: How is the market for PLCs divided?
A: There are two basic PLC groupings: embedded and
modular.
Embedded PLCs are dedicated, relatively closed, standalone
units which cannot be expanded (or can be, but only a little)
and are well-suited for well-defined tasks with known I/O
needs and with a limit on their needed functionality.
Modular PLCs are often rack-mounted and can be expanded
by adding new modules to the bus or chassis, Figure 2.
These modules add more and different types of I/O, and
even add additional computation power if desired.
Fig 2: The PLC has come a very long way in form, function, and
capabilities over nearly five decades, as the detailed image of this new
one clearly shows. (Image source: Tech Zephyr)
Q: How are the PLC sizes designated?
A: There is no formal industry standard, but the general
groupings are nano, micro, mini, standard, and modular,
primarily determined by the number of I/O points the PLC can
handle. A nano unit might have only up to 16 I/O points, a
micro PLC might have up to 520 I/O including over 100
analog ones, and a high-end modular unit can support
thousands of points. In recent years, the capabilities and
connectivity of the smaller units have increased to such a level
that many large installations, are tending towards increased use
of the smaller units for highly localized, immediate control,
and then networking these for a larger system umbrella.
Q: What’s the history of the PLC?
A: In brief: in the 1960s, General Motors Hydramatic (the automatic
transmission division of General Motors) decided that an electronic verso of the
relay-based system might offer significant benefits to the production lines and
efficiency.
They issue a request for proposals (RFP) for a unit which had to meet goals of
physical ruggedness, compatibility with existing ladder logic, and deterministic
behavior.
Four companies responded: Bedford Associates headed by Dick Morley (a self-
schooled MIT dropout);
Digital Equipment Corp (DEC), with a minicomputer-based solution;
Allen-Bradley with a credible but large and complex unit; and Century Detroit.
The proposal by Morley and his team, Figure 3, was the only one accepted,
and they formed Modicon, a contraction of MOdular Digital.
Fig 3: The Modicon development team and the 084, left to right: Dick Morley,
Tom Boissevain, the Modicon 084, George Schwenk, and Jonas Landau. (Image
source: Automation.com)
Q: End of story?
A: Of course not! The Model 084 was delivered in 1969; in it
were a processor board, memory, and a “logic solver” board,
which parsed the algorithms associated with ladder logic.
The Modicon 084 was not a success, as it was slow, somewhat
cumbersome, had “architectural” issues, and lacked some
useful features.
Yet it provided enough advantages that the Modicon team was
asked to continue the work.
In 1973, they introduced the Modicon 184, which is
recognized as being the first mass-market PLC to achieve
success, Figure 4.
Fig 4: The Modicon 184 was the PLC that ignited the
market and began the changeover from relay-based
control to solid-state units. (Image
source: AutomationDirect.com)
Modicon was purchased in 1977 by Gould Electronics,
later acquired by German’s AEG, and then by French
supplier Schneider Electric, the current owner.
Dick Morley was a fascinating person both
professionally and personally (see References); he
passed away in October 2017
Q; Who supports the PLC market?
The PLC market is very attractive and vendors of signal-
conditioning IC, who are constantly introducing new
components which increase the types of signals handled, the
I/O density, speed, and other attributes. Similarly, vendors of
rugged, high-reliability power supplies are introducing smaller,
more efficient, lower-dissipation units to serve this market.
PLCs are not “junior” or limited PCs; instead, they are
application-focused systems with significant analog and digital
I/O plus rugged circuitry, software, and packaging design, all
optimized for their task without extraneous features or
functions.
Ladder logic symbols
The ladder logic symbols that are used in PLC
programming have been derived from traditional relay
logic control circuits.
If you have a basic knowledge of electric circuits then
getting started in ladder logic programming should be
a breeze.
If not, don’t worry, ladder logic is a graphical
programming language and getting to know the basic
ladder logic symbols and concepts is quite easy.
Ladder logic symbols are the fundamental
programming components used in ladder diagrams.
In PLC programming, ladder logic symbols can be
used individually or in combination to create logic
instructions.
Traditionally, ladder logic symbols were created for
bit logic operations, but now include higher level
functions such as timers, counters, math,
comparison, PID loops, data manipulation and data
conversion.
Learning the basic ladder logic symbols will give you
a solid foundation.
Generally speaking a large majority of real world
applications can be accomplished with the basic ladder
logic symbols.
As your desire to program complex automation and
process control Functions increases, then higher level
ladder logic symbols can be used like math operations,
PID loops, data manipulation and data conversion.
The main symbols for PLC ladder logic are the input
symbols and output symbols.
Digital inputs are expressed as normally open contact
(NO) symbols or normally closed contact (NC)
symbols.
While digital outputs are expressed as a coil symbol.
In ladder logic the normally open contact
(NO) and normally closed contact (NC) symbols are
mainly used to define PLC digital inputs and internal logic
instructions.
They have been translated into ladder logic from switches
and relay contacts used in electric circuits.
An coil in ladder logic is the symbol which mainly defines
PLC digital outputs.
However, a coil can also be used with internal memory in
order to trigger internal logic instructions.
The coil symbol has been translated into ladder logic from
relay coils used in electric circuits.
The NO and NC contacts are some of the fundamental
symbols used in PLC programming.
Let’s take a more detailed look at them and other symbols
used in PLC programming by investigating their operation
and how they are commonly used in a ladder diagram…
Normally Open Contact (NO) Symbol
Common Uses:
Start Push buttons.
Selector switches.
Digital instrumentation.
Internal programming.
Normally Closed Contact (NC) Symbol
Common uses:
Stop Push buttons.
Fail safe instrumentation.
Motor Thermal Overloads.
Internal programming.
Common uses:
Motor control.
Actuator control.
Indication lamps.
Warning sirens.
Internal programming.
Sequence logic.
Common uses:
Counting applications.
Math commands.
Data Transfer commands.
Latch output during a specific set of conditions.
Common uses for Set and Reset Coil
Symbols:
Motor and actuator outputs.
Indication lamp and warning sirens.
Internal programming.
Toggle logic (flip flops).
Complex latching logic which is set and reset in
multiple locations.
Timer Delay On Symbol
Common uses:
Time delay for Warning Sirens.
Star/Delta Motor Starters.
Sequence start delays.
De-bounce time delay to fix digital instrumentation
flicker.
Timer Delay Off Symbol

Ladder Logic Timer

Delay Off Symbol –
State Diagram
Common Uses:
Cooling Fan run on time delay.
 Down Counter
Operation:
If the input condition transitions from FALSE to TRUE then the
counter is decremented by a value of 1.
The accumulated count value is written to an output.
When the count value reaches zero the done output is set TRUE.
The counter is set back to the preset value by triggering the reset input.
Common uses for Up & Down Counters:
Counting items for a stacking sequence.
Counting items for a batching sequence.
Counting items for a diverting conveying.
Counting items to be queued in a conveyor line.
Counting events for alarm and fault triggering
Program form
Signal lamp is required to be switched on if a pump is running and
the pressure is satisfactory, or if the lamp test switch is closed.
In this application, if there should be an output from the lamp inputs
from both pump and pressure sensors are required.
Hence, AND logic gates are used.
OR logic is used for the test input condition, it is required to give
an output of lamp on regardless of whether there is a signal from the
AND system.
By using END or RET instruction in the ladder diagram, we can tell
PLC has reached the end of the program.
PLC Program to Operate Valve
Consider a drinks machine that allows the selection of tea or
coffee, milk or no milk, sugar or no sugar, and will supply the
required hot drink on the insertion of a coin.
It is seen that either tea or coffee is selected using the first OR
logic gate.
The first AND gate give an output when either Tea or coffee is
selected and a coin is inserted into the machine.
The output from this AND gate is given to the second AND gate.
The second AND gate operate only when hot water combines
with tea.
Milk and sugar are optional additions that can occur after a coin
has been inserted.
 NUMBERING SYSTEM OF INPUTS AND
OUTPUTS:
The ideas of counting the man, materials have been slowly
developed and over a period of time the number system
has taken its place in the mankind.
Thus, different kinds of computational methods rapidly
being improved and developed expanding various methods
and solutions in the field of science and technology.
Most advanced, effective ways were invented using the
number system architecture.
The birth of a computer is originated by implementing
different types of understandable codes.
The normal number system which we use in our daily life is
known as decimal system, in which ten basic symbols
called digits namely 0, 1, 2,…9 are being used.
With the help of these 10 digits any number can be written
and this decimal system is also called as place value
system, means that the value represented by a digit depends
on the place of the digit within the numeral.
As we are using 10 digits for representing the numbers, ten
is called the base of the decimal system. Ex: 2410, means
2*10 + 4 = 24 in decimal number system.
The design of first electronic computers was vey
cumbersome as they used the decimal system, which
required ten distinct levels for each order.
The defining and maintaining these 10 levels has become a
great problem.
So, a simple On –Off system which is also called as binary system
was adopted.
The complete computer systems replaced the decimal system with
this new revolutionary binary system.
In binary arithmetic a quantity either exists or does not exist.

This type of decision making is comparatively easy to implement

with the logic circuits, where a voltage either exists or does not
exists at the output of each sub-logic blocks.
This can be called as ‘base-two’ system. Ex: 112 means 1*2 + 1 =
3 in decimal number system (310).
Binary Digits

All the computer systems communicate and operate
with the binary numbers which use only the digits 0
and 1.
The devices which are having two possible states will
only be adopted.
The following are some of the examples of these
devices:
A transistor is allowed to operate at cutoff or in saturation but
not in its active region.
A switch may be opened or closed
A statement may be characterized as True or False.
A BIT is a simple way to express Binary digiT.
It is a unit of information expressed as a choice between two
possibilities.
Here there are two possibilities of information which are either
Zero or One.
In this binary language the first (or OFF) state is called ’0’, and
the second (or ON) state is called ‘1’.
Analogue Output
The electronic signals represent reality.
For example the temperature or pressure can be
represented as ‘equivalent’ electronic signals.
Such representations are of two basic types.
They are Analogue and Digital.
That means all the electronic circuits and systems can
be divided into two major groups.
They are Analogue and Digital Systems.
As the name denotes, all the analogue systems and
circuits are analogous in nature, that means the circuits
and the components are interdependent one among the
other.
As they are interdependent on each other and all the
components follow some load line (i.e. Some
equation) the output voltage is continuous, because
this voltage can have an infinite number of values.
For example the ceiling fan speed will vary according
to the fan regulator position.
The more the regulator knob rotates, the more the
speed that means the ceiling fan will get more voltage
by reducing the resistance of the regulator.
The position of the knob indicates the fan speed.
Analogue Output Representation
Another example of analogue output is a simple potential divider which is
generally used to reduce the DC voltage level to a desired level.

3. Analogue output representation example

Here, the Vin = DC input voltage, Vout = DC output voltage;

Then output voltage is given as Vout = Vin x R₂ / (R₁ + R₂)

For example if Vin = 15 V DC, R₁ = 10 kΩ and R₂ = 5 kΩ,

Then the output voltage Vout will be 5 V DC.

Here the output voltage Vout varies continuously based on the input voltage Vin
applied across the resistors R1 and R2. Hence potential divider output is
analogue in nature.
MULTITASKING:
The ability to execute more than one task at the same time,
a task being a program.
The terms multitasking and multiprocessing are often used
interchangeably, although multiprocessing implies that more than
one CPU is involved.
In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from one
program to another so quickly that it gives the appearance of
executing all of the programs at the same time.
There are two basic types of
multitasking: preemptive and cooperative. 
In preemptive multitasking, the operating system parcels out
CPU time slices to each program.
In cooperative multitasking, each program can control
the CPU for as long as it needs it.
If a program is not using the CPU, however, it can
allow another program to use it temporarily. 

OS/2, Windows 95, Windows NT, the Amiga operating

system and UNIX use preemptive multitasking,
whereas Microsoft Windows 3.x and
the MultiFinder (for Macintosh computers) use
cooperative multitasking.
"Multi-tasking" for a PLC usually means that the PLC
can be made to do many tasks at the same time.
Most PLCs cannot really do more than 1 thing at a
time, but with the use of clever programming, it can be
made to APPEAR as if it is doing many things, when
really it is doing the tasks in sequence one after the
other, but so fast that to a human they appear to be
done at the same time.
The key is a concept called "Interrupts".
A PLC microprocessor can be built to have a signal that causes the
normal program scan to be temporarily halted, and another routine
ran instead, and when the Interrupt routine is finished, then the
normal program is resumed.
An Interupt routine is triggered by some external input or
condition in your program.
Your tasks (jobs to be performed by the PLC) can be divided into
priority (importance) levels, and an Interrupt routine prorammed
for each level.
This usually is only needed for tasks that have to be peformed at
high speed or in a short time. For 95% of the things that a PLC is
used to do, then the normal program scan is adequate, and the
Interrupt routines are not needed.