PAVEMENT DESIGN AND

CONSTRUCTION

Pavement Materials
Primary Pavement Design Inputs

 Traffic
 Pavement Material
 Subgrade / Foundation
 Layer Material Properties
 Environment / Climate

2
Material Characterization
 To classify and grade the material
 To evaluate basic material properties (empirical or
fundamental property)
 To study the durability of material – long term
performance
 To evaluate the response of material under traffic
loading
 To ensure quality construction
 Required property and its relationship to pavement
performance
3
Material Evaluation
 Laboratory evaluation
 Field evaluation
 Estimation using visual inspection
 Evaluation carried out for:
 Traffic loading (slow/fast, heavy/light, etc)
 Climatic conditions (moisture, temperature, freeze/thaw,
chemical reactions, etc.)
 Type and magnitude of stresses (normal or shear)
 Estimating parameters related to design

4
Material Behavior
 Stress-strain relationship
 Linear or nonlinear
 Elastic or plastic or elasto-plastic
 Viscous or non-viscous
 Combination of above
 Conditions
 Loading frequency
 Temperature/Moisture dependency
 Aging

5
Materials Data

 Material quality key to adequate performance of

pavement structure
 Important materials inputs to Mechanistic-
Empirical (ME) analysis and design
 Modulus
 Strength
 Poisson’s ratio

6
Material Categories

 Asphaltic Materials
 PCC Materials
 Cementitiously Stabilized Materials
 Non-stabilized granular base/subbase
 Subgrade soils
 Bedrock

7
Material Subcategories
 Asphalt Materials  PCC Materials
 Hot Mix AC—Dense Graded  Intact Slabs
• Central Plant Produced
 Fractured Slabs
• In-Place Recycled
• Crack
 Hot Mix AC—Open Graded • Break
Asphalt • Rubblized

 Hot Mix AC—Sand Asphalt

Mixtures
 Cold Mix AC
• Central Plant Processed
• In-Place Recycled

8
Material Subcategories

 Non-Stabilized
Cementitiously Granular
StabilizedBase/Subbase
Materials
 Granular
Cement Stabilized
Base/Subbase
 Sandy
Soil Cement
Subbase
 Cold
Lime Recycled
Cement Fly
Asphalt
Ash (used as aggregate)
• RAP (includes millings)
 Lime Fly Ash
• Pulverized In-Place
 Lime Stabilized/Modified Soils
 Cold Recycled Asphalt Pavement (AC plus aggregate
 Open graded Cement Stabilized Materials
base/subbase)

9
Material Subcategories

 Bedrock
Subgrade Soils
 Solid,
Gravelly
Massive
Soils and Continuous
 Highly
Sandy Soils
Fractured, Weathered
 Silty Soils
 Clayey Soils

10
Material Properties

Subgrade/Foundation
Aggregate Base/Subbase
Bedrock
Subgrade

 Material upon which the pavement structure is

built.
 Composed of a wide range of materials.
 Gravelly Soils
 Sandy Soils
 Silty Soils
 Clayey Soils

12
Subgrade Performance

 Load bearing capacity is the ability to support

loads transmitted from the pavement structure. 
 Strength of subgrade is affected by:
 Degree of compaction
 Moisture content (shrinkage and swelling)
• Drainage
• Groundwater table elevation
• Infiltration or pavement porosity/cracking
 Soil type (clayey or silty)

13
Subgrade Improvement

 Removal and replacement (over-excavation) by

high quality fill.
 Removal can be a function of soil plasticity index
 Thick pavement structure over a poor subgrade will not
necessarily make a good pavement.

14
Subgrade Improvement (Cont’d)

 Stabilization of existing subgrade.

15
Stiffness/Strength Tests

 Typically characterized by their resistance to

deformation under load (strength/stiffness).
 Strength
• Stress needed to break or rupture a material
 Stiffness
• Relationship between stress and strain in the elastic range
 Basic tests for subgrade stiffness/strength:
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Elastic (Resilient) modulus

16
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
 Developed by the California Division of Highways (1930).
 Compares the bearing capacity of a material with that of a
well-graded and high quality crushed stone (CBR @ 100%).
 Intended for, but not limited to, cohesive materials (maximum
sizes 19 mm).
 AASHTO T 193 and ASTM D 1883.

17
Typical CBR Values
General Soil Type USC Soil Type CBR Range
GW 40 - 80
GP 30 - 60
GM 20 - 60

Coarse-grained GC 20 - 40
soils SW 20 - 40
SP 10 - 40
SM 10 - 40
SC 5 - 20
ML 15 or less
CL LL < 50% 15 or less
OL 5 or less
Fine-grained soils
MH 10 or less
CH LL > 50% 15 or less
OH 5 or less

18
 Unified Soil Classification System
(ASTM D 2487)
Major Divisions Group Typical Names
Well-graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no
GW
Clean fines
Gravels Gravels
50% or more of course Poorly graded gravels and gravel-sand mixtures, little or no
GP
fraction retained on the fines
Course-Grained Soils 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve GM Silty gravels, gravel-sand-silt mixtures
Gravels
More than 50% retained with Fines
on the 0.075 mm GC Clayey gravels, gravel-sand-clay mixtures
(No. 200) sieve SW Well-graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines
Sands Clean Sands
50% or more of course SP Poorly graded sands and gravelly sands, little or no fines
fraction passes the SM Silty sands, sand-silt mixtures
4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve Sands
with Fines SC Clayey sands, sand-clay mixtures
ML Inorganic silts, very fine sands, silty or clayey fine sands
Silts and Clays Inorganic clays of low to medium plasticity, gravelly/
CL
Liquid Limit 50% or less sandy/silty/lean clays
Fine-Grained Soils
More than 50% passes OL Organic silts and organic silty clays of low plasticity
the 0.075 mm
(No. 200) sieve MH Inorganic silts, micaceous or fine sands or silts
Silts and Clays
CH Inorganic clays or high plasticity, fat clays
Liquid Limit greater than 50%
OH Organic clays of medium to high plasticity
Highly Organic Soils PT Peat, muck, and other highly organic soils
Prefix: G = Gravel, S = Sand, M = Silt, C = Clay, O = Organic    
Suffix: W = Well Graded, P = Poorly Graded, M = Silty, L = Clay, LL < 50%, H = Clay, LL > 50%

 
19
Affect of Wheel Load on
Subgrade/Base/Subbase Stresses

AC

Base

Subgrade

v =  + 
c d
c = Confining stress
d = Deviator stress = v -  c
 c
c v = Vertical stress = c +  d
c

20
Resilient Modulus (MR)
 Resilient Modulus (MR) is a
subgrade stiffness test.
Estimate of its modulus of
elasticity (E).
 Modulus of elasticity is stress
divided by strain (e.g., the
slope within the linear elastic
range).
Deviator Stress
 Resilient modulus is stress MR 
Recoverabl e Strain
divided by strain for repeated
applied loads – like those σ
 d
experienced by pavements. εr

21
Resilient Modulus (MR) – Cont’d

 Nonlinear, elastic-plastic material

 Stress dependent behavior
 Stress softening (fine-grained soils)
 Stress hardening (coarse-grained materials)
 Resilient (= Recoverable) deformation
 Resilient modulus is the ratio of the applied stress
to the recoverable (elastic) strain
 Resilient Modulus Protocols
 AASHTO T 292-91/AASHTO T 294-92/AASHTO T P46-
94
22
Resilient Modulus (MR) – Cont’d
 Requires closed loop electro-
hydraulic testing machine with a
function generator capability
 Haversine shaped load-pulse with a
0.1 second loading time followed by
a 0.9 second rest time for
base/subbase materials
 Haversine shape load-pulse with a
0.2 second loading time followed by
a 0.8 second rest time for subgrade
materials.

23
E versus MR

 Modulus of elasticity
 Slope of stress-strain plot within elastic range
 Resilient Modulus
 Rapidly applied load like pavement repeated loads
 Significant amount of plastic and elastic deformation
Strength

Stress
Stress

d
 d
E  Unloading Mr 
 r
Ran ic
ge
t
Elas

Strain Strain
p r

24
Stress Pulse and Definition of Mr
 

>
AD
LO
d - Deviator d

AD
stress

LO
UN
<
p r
Resilient strain
time 
0.1 sec 0.9 sec
d
MR 
1 Repetition r

25
Stress Sensitivity of Coarse Grained Soil
(Base/Subbase)
σd
M R(EBS ) 
εr

26
Stress Sensitivity of Fine Grained Soil
(Subgrade)
σd
M R(ESG ) 
εr

27
Universal Resilient Modulus Estimation
k2 k3
     oct 
M R  k1 pa     1
 pa   pa 

MR = Resilient modulus (in units of Pa).

pa = Atmospheric pressure tern (used to normalize MR units).
k1, k2, k3 = Regression constants which are functions of the
specific material type and physical properties of the
material (moisture-density).
 = Bulk or first stress invariant representing the sum of all
orthogonal normal stresses acting at a given point.
toct = Octahedral shear stress acting on the material.

28
Strength/Stiffness Correlations

 Restricted to fine grained materials with soaked

CBR values of 6-8 or less
M R ( psi)  1500 CBR

 New proposed AASHTO Design Guide:

M R ( psi)  2555 CBR 0.64

29
Typical Modulus Values of Materials
Elastic Modulus
Material
MPa psi

Diamond 1,200,000 170,000,000

Steel 200,000 30,000,000

Aluminum 70,000 10,000,000

Wood 7,000-14,000 1,000,000-2,000,000

Crushed Stone 150-300 20,000-40,000

Silty Soils 35-150 5,000-20,000

Clay Soils 35-100   5,000-15,000

Rubber 7 1,000

30
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)

 Estimates the support of the layers below a rigid

pavement surface course (the PCC slab). 
 k-value can be determined by field tests (plate
load) or by correlation with other tests. There is no
direct laboratory procedure for determining k-
value. 

31
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)

 The reactive pressure to resist a load is

proportional to the spring deflection (which is a
representation of slab deflection) and k.

Stress P
k (pci)  
defelection Δ

32
Modulus of Elasticity for Bedrock
 Magnitude of the modulus of elasticity of any bedrock layer
has little effect on the computed pavement stresses, strains,
and displacements.
 Extremely important if depth is less than 5 to 7 m.
 Assumed to be linearly elastic.

Type Typical Range Default Elastic Modulus

1.2 – 13.9 GPa 6.9 GPa
Solid, Massive Bedrock
750,000 – 2,000,000 psi 1,000,000 psi
Highly Fractured, 1.7 – 6.9 GPa 3.5 GPa
Weathered 250,000 – 1,000,000 psi 500,000 psi

33
Material Properties

Asphalt Mix
Asphalt Modulus

 Function of
 Temperature
 Rate of loading
 Age
 Volumetric properties
 As the temperature increases, the modulus
decreases
 As loading time increases, the modulus decreases
 As HMA ages with time, the modulus increases

35
Asphalt Modulus

 Complex (Dynamic) Modulus

 Compression Testing
 Calculated from regression equation
 Resilient Modulus
 Compression Testing
 Indirect Tension Testing

36
Complex (Dynamic) Modulus


osin(t-)
osin(t-)
o
o
o o
,  osint ,  osint

Time, t
Time, t

0 ti ti = time lag
E *     (3 6 0 o ) tp = cycle time
0 tp

37
Regression Equation – Dynamic Modulus

 Function of:
 Asphalt binder viscosity
 Loading frequency
 Air void content
 Effective asphalt content

CANNON
 Cumulative percent retained on
• 19-mm 100
A9
• 9.5-mm
• 4.76-mm
 Percent passing 0.075-mm sieve

38
Regression Equation – Dynamic Modulus
(Witczak Equation)
log E  1.249937 0.02932 200  0.001767(  200 ) 2
 Vbeff 
 0.002841 4  0.058097Va  0.802208 
V V 
 beff a 

3.871977 0.0021 4  0.003958 38  0.000017(  38 ) 2  0.005470 34


1  e ( 0.6033130.313351log( f ) 0.393532log( ))
Where:
E = Dynamic modulus, 105 psi.
 = Bitumen viscosity, 106 Poise.
f = Loading frequency, Hz.
Va = Air void content, %.
Vbeff= Effective bitumen content, % by volume.
34 = Cumulative % retained on the 19-mm sieve.
38 = Cumulative % retained on the 9.5-mm sieve.
4 = Cumulative % retained on the 4.76-mm sieve.
200 = % passing the 0.075-mm sieve.

39
Example #1
Temperature, oF Viscosity, x106
 Mix Properties poise
130 0.0148
 Air voids = 7.7 percent 100 0.282

 Effec. AC by volume = 10.3% 70 17.0

40 1,640
 Retained ¾” sieve = 0.0% 10 126,000

 Retained 3.8 “sieve = 15.0%

 Retained No. 4 sieve = 31.0%
 Passing No. 200 sieve = 4.2%
 Determine the E* at
 f = 0.1, 0.3, 1.0, 3.0, and 10 Hz.

40
Solution (Dynamic Modulus Equation)
Dynamic Modulus Regression Equation

100.000

10.000
0.1
E x 10 p si

0.3
5

` 1
3
10
1.000

0.100
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Te mperature , F

41
Solution (Dynamic Modulus Equation)
Dynamic Modulus Regression Equation

100.000

130 F
10.000
100 F
10 F
70 F
E x 10 p si

40 F
40 FF
5

70
10 FF
100
130 F
1.000

0.100
0.1 1 10
Frequency Hz.

42
Resilient Modulus

 Indirect Tension
 Compression
 Typical load pulse
 Haversine loading
 0.1 second loading time
 0.9 second rest time

43
Resilient Modulus
 Typical Response Measurement
 Instantaneous Modulus
 Total Modulus
 As temperature decreases: ER(IDT) approaches ER(qu)

44
Example #2
 Resilient Modulus test parameters
 Gauge length = 4 inches
 Applied stress = 30 psi
 Type of load pulse = Square wave
 Calibration of trace: One vertical grid = 5.0x10-5 inches

45
Solution
l
ER 
r
 l  (9 grids )(5.0 x105 )
30
E RI   266,700 psi
0.00045
4
 l  (12 grids )(5.0 x10 5 )
30
E RT   200,000 psi
0.00060
4

46
Example #3
 The following lists some of the results from a repeated load
triaxial resilient modulus test on an unbound material/soil.
The gauge length for the vertical displacement is 6.0 inches.
 Calculate the total resilient modulus, MR, for each stress
state, and what can you determine from these test results?

Confining Repeated Recovered Resilient

Pressure, psi Vertical Displacement, Modulus, psi.
Pressure, psi in.

10 5 0.00420 ?
10 20 0.00475 ?

47
Solution
σd
MR 
Δl
Gl
Where
σ d  Deviator stress Δl  Measured vertical displacement
Gl  Gauge length εr  Re silient Vertical Strain (Δl /Gl )

Confining Repeated Recovered Resilient

Pressure, psi Vertical Displacement, Modulus, psi.
Pressure, psi in.
10 5 0.00420 7,143
10 20 0.00475 12631.5

The test specimen or material is stress-sensitive or stress dependent. It hardens or

stiffens with increasing load or stress levels.

48
 Pavement Materials (PCC)

Modulus of Rupture or Flexural

Strength
Split Tensile Strength
Compressive Strength
Elastic Modulus
PCC Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion (a)
Interrelationships
Modulus of Rupture

 Indicator of tensile strength

 Profound effect on fatigue cracking potential of
PCC slab
 Test method AASHTO T 97 (ASTM C78)
 Simple beam (6 x 6 x 20 in.)
 Third point loading at 125 to 175 lb/in2/min

50
Modulus of Rupture – Third Point Loading
AASHTO T 97

Head of testing machine

Steel ball
PL
25 mm min. R 2
bd
Specimen R = Modulus of rupture
P = Max. load applied
L/3 L/3 L/3 b = Specimen width
Rigid base
d = Specimen depth

Span length, L

51
Split Tensile Strength
2P P
 Lower than MR from modulus of ft 
LD
rupture test. Ratio between two
typically ranges from 0.6 to 0.7
 ASTM C496
 Load applied at a rate of 690 to 1380
kPa/min until the specimen fails
 Equation:
 ft = Tensile strength, kPa.
 P = Compressive load, N.
 L = Cylinder length, mm.
 D = Cylinder diameter, mm
P
52
Compressive Strength

 Universal indicator of PCC quality and strength

 Function of : P P
 Aggregate size, shape, and type f 'c 
A
 Cement composition
 Water-cement ratio f’c = Compressive Strength
P = Max. load applied
 Admixtures A = Specimen surface area
 Curing
 Test Method: ASTM C 39

53
Elastic Modulus

 Measure of the stress-strain behavior

 Effect on pavement deflection and the stresses
 Static modulus approximately 0.8 of modulus from
rapid load applications
 ASTM C469
 Factors Affecting PCC Elastic Modulus
 The relative proportions of paste and aggregate
 Ratio of water to cement (w/(c+p))
 Aggregate characteristics

54
Elastic Modulus – ASTM C469
 Load cylindrical specimen under Compression
longitudinal compression at 35 ±
5 lb/in2/sec
 Working stress range is 0 to
40% of ultimate concrete 
strength
 Obtain stress strain curve for
the specimen

Strain
Indicator

55
Elastic Modulus – ASTM C469
 Ec = Modulus of elasticity
 S2 = Stress corresponding to
40% of the ultimate load S2

Stress, S
 S1 = Stress corresponding to a
longitudinal strain of e1
S 2  S1
 e1 = 0.000050 S1 Ec 
 2  0.000050

 e2 = Longitudinal strain
produced by stress, S2 e1 e2
Strain, e

56
PCC Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (a)

 Defined as the change in unit length per degree of

temperature change.
 Unrestrained change in length: L =  T L

L = Change in unit length of PCC due to a temperature change

of T.
 = Coefficient of linear expansion of PCC, strain per oF or oC.
T = Temperature change (T2 - T1), oF or oC.
L = Length of specimen (i.e., joint spacing).

57
Importance of Thermal Coefficient

 Magnitude of calculated curling stress (caused by

differences in temperature through the slab thickness) is
very sensitive to .
 Curling stresses can comprise 50 percent or more of the
critical stress.
 Important factor in designing joint sealant reservoirs and
in selecting sealant materials.
 Internal stresses may develop if the thermal expansion
characteristics of the matrix (hydrated cement paste) and
the aggregates are substantially different.
 Influenced by the aggregate type and mix design properties
of the PCC.
58
Typical a for PCC

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Material
10-6/oC 10-6/oF
Aggregate
Granite 7-9 4-5
Basalt 6-8 3.3-4.4
Limestone 6 3.3
Dolomite 7-10 4-5.5
Sandstone 11-12 6.1-6.7
Quartzite 11-13 6.1-7.2
Marble 4-7 2.2-4
Cement Paste (saturated)
w/c = 0.4 18-20 10-11
w/c = 0.5 18-20 10-11
w/c = 0.6 18-20 10-11
Concrete 7.4-13 4.1-7.3
Steel 11-12 6.1-6.7

59
Interrelation of Properties
0.5
MR  9.5 f c
0.5
Ec  0.043 1.5
fc
MR= Flexural Strength, psi (Modulus of Rupture)
fc = Compressive Strength, psi
E = Elastic modulus, psi
 = PCC unit weight, pci

60
Compressive/Flexural/Elastic Comparison
Table 1-3.1. Models for relating compressive to flexural strength.
Model Source
f = 9.5(c)0.5 (stress in psi) PCA Model
f = 0.62 (c) 0.5 (stress in MPa) ACI
f = 8.3 (c) 0.5 (stress in psi) Teychenne
f = 0.3 (c) 0.66 (stress in MPa) Comite Europeen du Beton
f = k2 ( c)k1 (k2 ranges from 3 to 6, k1 Neville
from 0.3 to 0.8, stress in psi)
f = 8.3 / (4 + 12000/c) (stress in psi) Sozen, et al.

f is the PCC flexural strength in MPa or psi and C is the PCC compressive
strength in MPa or psi.

Models for relating compressive to elastic modulus.

Model Source
Ec = 0.0433/2(f’c)1/2 American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Ec = 9.1(/2300)(f’c)0.33 British Standards Institution, (BSI)
Ec = 9.5(/2400)2(f’c + 8)0.33 Comite Europeen du Beton, (CEB)

Ec is the PCC secant elastic modulus in GPa,  is the PCC unit weight in
kg/m3, and f’c is the PCC compressive strength of a standard 150 x 300 mm
cylinder in MPa.

61
Poisson’s Ratio
 Ratio of lateral strain to axial strain
 Generally insensitive to stress and
strain in response of asphalt
pavement system  y

 Determined using static test, dynamic

test, or wave propagation
 Other relations:  x

E y
1 1 V   1 
  1   x
2   a Vo  2G

62
Typical Poisson’s Ratios

 Bituminous Road Materials

 0.15 ≤ µ ≤ 0.50
 Unbound Base
 0.30 ≤ µ ≤ 0.40
 Subgrade
 0.10 ≤ µ ≤ 0.50
 Portland Cement Concrete (static value)
 0.15 ≤ µ ≤ 0.18

63
Questions - ???

64