Chapter 6
Motivation and Stress Management
6.1. Concept of Motivation:
Motivation is one of the most important function of
management. It is essential to increase overall
efficiency of human beings to improve
performance of employees.
While machines, processes and technologies of
high order can be made available to the
individuals but high productivity can only be
achieved if workers are highly skilled and
adequately motivated.
Therefore, motivation is the process of
stimulating, increasing and creating willingness
among employees to do the assigned work in
the best possible way.
It is the act of inspiring people to devote
maximum effort to achieve organizational
objective.
It energizes the behaivour of subordinates and
directs then towards the attainment of goals.
It is the drive that pushes and individual to work
hard and reach to the final destination.
It is the force that gives the strengths to get up
and keep going even when things are not
going in proper way.
The term motivation has been derived from the
Latin word movere which means to move for
something. It is derived from the word motive.
Hence, motivation means eagerness, interest
and desire for work. Motivation brings
purposeful changes in person's behavior.
It is the factor reasons or intent that makes
people behave or act in a particular manner.
• According to William G Scott "Motivation
means a process of stimulating people to
action to achieve desired goals.
According to Dale S. Beach "Motivation can be
defined as a willingness at work to expand
energy to achieve a goal or reward.
6.2. Work Motivation Theories:
A) Content Theories:
The theory that are primarily based on human
need perspective and explains the
deficiencies in one or more important needs
of human being are called content theories.
They are explained as below:
1) Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory:
This theory was propounded by an American
Psychologist Abraham Harold Maslow in 1943.
He was a professor of Brandeis University. He was
born on April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New work.
This theory totally based on human needs. Human
includes various types of needs. All these needs
have a hierarchy. When a person fulfill one need
then emerge other need.
Hence, Maslow's summarizes different types of
needs in five categories. He argues that if
organization fulfilled all five needs by hierarchical
position then people motivate to performance.
1 Physiological Needs Food, Shelter, Cloths, Rest, health
treatment etc.
2 Safety/ security Needs Job security, financial security, physical
security, social security,
3. Social Needs Friendship, family help, social
interaction, group formation, Integrity,
social acceptance, affection
4. Ego/Esteem Needs Self confidence, self respect, freedom,
position, power, prestige, authority and
responsibility, reorganization
5. Self Actualization challenging job, participation in decision
Needs making , flexibility and autonomy in
works.
2) Herzberg's Two Factor Theory: This theory was
propounded by Fredrick Herzberg of Western
Research University of America in 1950.
He conducted this study with 200 engineers and
accountant on the job satisfaction in Pittsburgh
USA.
He asked the employees two different questions-
what made them happy and what made them
unhappy.
From this interview he found that the factors
which increase the satisfaction and prevention
the dissatisfaction.
He gave the name of those factors are
motivational factors and hygiene factors. Such
factors are explained as bellow:
A) Hygiene Factors
• Compensation, company rules, regulation,
policies and administration, working
condition, supervision, post, status, inter
personal relationship, job security,
B) Motivational Factors
• Achievement, recognition, authority and
responsibility, advancement and growth,
Challenging jobs, flexibility,
1) Hygiene Factors: The factors that prevent
dissatisfaction of the employees are called
hygiene factors.
They do not motive employees at work but they
stop disappointment of the employees. These
factors only influence the employees to the level
up to no satisfaction.
They do not directly motivate employees to perform
at a high level. It means they bring employees
zero point of motivation. Hygiene factors help to
avoid employees from dissatisfaction.
It includes compensation, company rules,
regulation, policies and administration, working
condition, supervision, post, status, inter
personal relationship, job security etc.
2) Motivational Factors: The factors which
inspire, stimulate and encourage to the
employees for higher performance are known
as motivational factors.
They provide self satisfaction and positively
affect morale, satisfaction, efficiency,
productivity and profitability of the
employees.
It has includes achievement, recognition,
authority and responsibility, advancement and
growth, challenging job, flexibility etc.
3) ERG Theory: This theory was propounded by
Clayton Alderfer in 1969. It should be based
on human needs and desires.
He stated that motivation is depends on the
factors of existence, Relatedness and Growth.
Clayton has criticized Maslows' need hierarchy
theory and explained that more than one
need could be seen at a time.
He reduces the Maslow's five needs into three
levels. So, it is also known as improved
version of Maslow's need hierarchy theory of
motivation. The hierarchy levels of needs are
explained as below:
• 1. Existence Needs: Existence is the state of survival or being
alive which is the primary need of human being. It includes
the Maslow's physiological and safety needs such as food,
cloths, shelter, rest, job security, education, safe working
condition, reasonable remuneration etc. For the fulfillment
of these factors employees' continue putting their effort.
• 2. Relatedness Needs: As a social being people want to
establish cooperation and harmonious relationship with
employees and management. So, these needs are concerned
to maintain friendly behaivour of co-workers, interaction
with customers, appropriate supervision, socially agreeable,
involve in social organization etc. It has included social and
some esteem needs of Maslow.
• 3. Growth Needs: These are related to the personal
development of individual in terms of career and economic
status. They concerned to achieve something in terms of
position, self respect, freedom, appreciation, recognition,
identity, challenging job, participation in decision making,
autonomy, responsibility and authority etc. It has included
self actualization needs of Maslow.
4) X and Y theory:
This theory was propounded by Prof. Douglas
McGregor. It is concerned with relationship of
superior and subordinates. He proposed that
there were two types of behavior of
managers. Ones who assumed a negative
view of their employees that is called x
theory and other who assumed a positive
views that is called Y theory. According to
Douglas X represents scientific approach of
management and Y theory represents human
relation theory.
• i) Theory X : This theory represents the
traditional approaches towards work and
workers. It assumes that the employees are
lazy. They dislike work and tend to avoid it.
• They do not like to work so their manager
should be control, give direction and force to
the performance. Employees want to avoid
responsibilities and do not like change.
• They are self centered and need safety.
Therefore, employees become ready for jobs
by presser, threats and punishment.
ii) Theory of Y: This theory represents positive
views towards work and workers.
So, managers do not need to control, punish
and direct to the employees.
They think work as a natural activity. Employees
exercise self direction, self control and
become dedicated to work.
Thus, Theory suggested that average human
being likes work and takes it as natural as play.
• 5) Achievement Theory: This theory was
propounded by a Harvard psychologist, David
McClelland and his colleagues in 19th century.
• It states that human behavior is affected by
three needs. They forwarded three elements
that affected motivation.
• Thus, this theory is also known as three factor
theory. If the organization fulfilled and
satisfied employees then they get motivation
towards work. The three needs are explained
as below:
a) Need for Achievement (n-ach): Need for achievement is
the desire of accomplish distinguish success and
achievement.
Under this, employees are giving priority to attain
organizational goal rather than their own goal.
They focus their effort to fulfilling various achievements after
accomplishing organizational goals.
It consists of willingness to face challenge, get personal
achievement, get success in competitive environment,
and handle with complex problems and willingness to do
better than others are the examples of need for
achievement theory.
Employees are low achievers and high achievers. Low
achievers work for high salary and financial incentives
while the higher achievers work for success and
achievement.
• b) Need for affiliation (n-Aff): It is the desire of
maintaining cooperation and mutual
understanding among the different groups.
• Human are social being so they like to live and
work in groups and share their ideas love and
affection to others.
• They try to maintain harmony relationship and
receive affection from other employees and
managers. Employees are motivated to establish
social relationship with customers, society,
managers, competitors and other groups. They
interact, discuss and making meeting with each
others.
c) Need for power (n-pow): It is the desire of
individual to influence, direct and control to
others.
Every individual wants to influence other by
using their power and authority. So, they like
certain authority and to supervise inspect and
direct to subordinates.
If they receive certain authority and
responsibility will be motivated for job
performance.
B) Process/Contemporary Theories:
1) Equity Theory: This theory was propounded
by J.S. Adams in 1963 A.D. The central part
of this theory is to maintain balance or equity.
He focused similar or justifiable behavior for
motivation.
This theory purposes that person always
perceive how he/she is treated fairly in
comparison to other in a working setting and
this perception influence their motivation.
It is correlated to people perception of equality,
fairness and justice practiced by the
management.
Everybody evaluates own effort and outcome
ratio with other effort and outcome. If the
ratio is equal to self before ratio of other's
within organization and other's outside the
organization are equal there is a situation of
equality.
Hence, the impartiality, justice and integrity
condition demonstrate equality. But if the
ratio is dissimilar, they may be de-motivated
with performance. For example .
Person's outcomes = Other's outcomes Result
Person's Input Other's input Equality
The equation of equality explained as bellow:
Person's outcomes = Other's outcomes = Result
Person's Input Other's input indifference Motivated
Rs. 10/ 1 hr (Rs. 10 per hr) Rs. 20/2 hr. (Rs. 10 per hr)
Person's outcomes < Other's outcomes = Result
Person's Input Other's input unhappy Demotivated
Rs. 10/ 1 hr (Rs. 10 per hr) Rs. 15/1 hr. (Rs. 15 per hr)
Person's outcomes > Other's outcomes = Result
Person's Input Other's input happy motivated
Rs. 15/ 1 hr (Rs. 15 per hr) Rs. 10/1 hr. (Rs. 10 per hr)
2) Expectancy Theory:
This theory was propounded by Victor Vroom in 1964.
It is based on the assumption that strength of
motivation depends on the strength of an expectation
of the outcome to an individual.
This theory states that employee's motivation is an
outcome of how much an individual wants a reward.
• According to Vroom the level of motivation is the
result of multiplication between the expectancy value
and instrumentality
• (Motivation=Expectation*Instrumentality* Value).
• The relationship among these variables indicates the
level of motivation. They are explained as below:
Expectancy (Effort): It refers to the efforts and
performance relationship. It relates to
individual's belief that a particular level of
performance will be followed by a particular
degree of effort. The result is, how probable an
employee exerting a given amount of effort to
lead a good performance.
Instrumentality (Performance): It refers to the
performance and reward relationship. It is the
degree to which person believe that
performing a particular level will lead
accomplishment of desired outcome.
Valence (Reward): It refers to reward and
personal goal relationship. It is the degree to
which an organizational reward in the context
of performance that will satisfy individual
needs and its attractiveness.
3) Reinforcement Theory:
This theory was propounded by B.F. Skinner. It
describes that the behaviour can be controlled
by consequences of the behaviour.
It states that the behavior of individual largely
determined by its results.
It means motivation is dependent on the
consequences or outputs. If the consequences
are positive then the individual is repeated that
behavior again and again.
But if the consequences are negative then
he/she is rejected the behaivour and go to the
correction of that behaviour.
Therefore, the process of correction and
rejection of negative behavior is known as
reinforcement. Manger uses the following
methods for reinforcement of the employees'
behavior.
i) Positive Reinforcement: If the employees
demonstrate desired behaviour, then the
organization provides different types of
rewards such as reward, incentives,
appreciation, admire etc.
It is reward for a desired behaviour. For
example if there is a provision of getting
commission or bonus then the sales persons
provides greater behaviour for performance.
It reinforces to the desire of salesperson for
increasing of sales volume.
ii) Negative Reinforcement: In this
reinforcement, a manager is rejected
undesirable behaviour and converts that
behaviour into desirable behaivour is called
negative reinforcement.
Manager uses negative reinforcement for the
positive result in future. For example if there is
a provision of not getting commission or
bonus to the salesperson whose performance
remains below the particular level, then each
employee tries to sale maximum to participate
in commission.
iii) Punishment: It is the method of reinforcement
that reduces and discourages undesirable behaviour
of employees for negative consequences. .
It prevents unfavorable behaviour. Employees can
reinforce by punishment, threatening and pressure.
Punishment can be positive or negative. Suppose any
student does not submit assignment he/she asked to
stand in front of class and reminded the
consequences of not submitting the assignment is
positive punishment.
But if the student is marked not qualified to attend
final examination is negative punishment
Iv ) Extinction: This type of reinforcement is
applied to reduce undesirable behaviour
especially when such behaviours were
previously rewarded.
It is a suitable form of punishment where is
withholding the positive reinforcement or
simply ignoring the undesirable behaivour. For
example if a production manger gets demand of
1000 units extra than regular supply. For
additional supply, he should manage over time
work and announces the allowances for
overtime.
4) Goal Setting Theory:
This theory was developed by Edwin Locke and
Gary Latham in 1968. It is based on the
notion that individuals sometimes have a drive
to reach a clearly defined end state. This end
state is a reward in itself.
It states that specific and challenging goals along
with appropriate feedback contribute to higher
and better task performance.
According to this theory, The setting of specific
and attainable goal is related to high level of
performance.
It focuses on identifying the types of goals that
are most effective in producing high levels of
motivation and performance.
6.3. Stress Management
What is Stress ?
It is the gap between our
expectation and reality.
It is the nonspecific response
of the body to any demand
is stress.
Stress is our mind and body's
response or reaction to a
real or imagined threat,
event or change.
Stress is the 'wear' and 'tear' in our minds and bodies
experiences as we attempt to cope with our continually
changing environment.
Stress occurs when the pressure is greater than the resources.
S= P> R
Stress is an internal or external pressure felt on the
physiological and psychological sides of the body when a
person feels out of control.
Stress is the body's physiological, emotional and
psychological response to an individual's well-being.
–Kavita Singh (2015)
* Stress Management
Stress management is a process of
controlling an individual’s level
of stress.
It includes practicing daily
meditation, identifying relaxing
activities.
It attempts to cope with negative
effects of stress through the
reduction of the stress response.
Stress management is important because
constant stress can do destruction on your
body’s immune system and contribute to
health problem such as tension headaches,
migraine headaches, insomnia, weight gain,
depression, anxiety and heart disease.
Stress management is a wide range of techniques
and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a
person's level of stress, especially
chronic stress, usually for the purpose of
improving everyday functioning.
6.4. Stress Management Strategies
A) Individual Strategies:
i) Physical Exercise- walk, jog, swim, ride
bicycles, play
ii) Relaxation- yoga, meditation,
iii) Behavioural Self Control-
iv) Social Support- get support from family
members, friends, peers
v) Healthy Diet-
vi) Avoid Inappropriate self talk
v) Time Management-
2) Organizational Strategies:
i) Goal setting
ii) Redesigning jobs
iii) Job Enlargement
iv) Job Enrichment
v) Define employees roles
vi) Provide team oriented work environment
vii) Improve organizational communication
viii) Employee assistance programs (EAP)
ix) Increase employee training and orientation
Programs:
6.5. Work Stress Model
1) Individual Level Stressors
i) Role Conflict-
ii) Role Uncertainty
iii) Role Overload
iv) Role Under load
v) Additional Responsibility
2) Group Level Stressors
vi) Lack of group cohesiveness
vii) Lack of social support
viii) Group level dynamics
3) Organizational Level Stressors:
i ) Administrative Policies and Strategies
ii) Organizational Structure and Design
iii) Organizational Process and working
condition
4) Extra Organizational Level Stressors
i) Technology Factors
ii) Economic Factors
iii) Cultural and Social Factors
iv) Political Factors
6.6. Motivational Application Through Job
Design:
Job design is the structure to work activities. It
decides content and methods of doing job. It
organizes tasks into a work unit.
It determines the duties and responsibilities of the
job, methods of doing job and relationships
between the manager and his superiors.
According to Herzberg it is the job itself that
motivates an employee rather than rewards or
incentives.
It is related to intentionally structuring technical,
social and human aspect of a job.
It is related to assembling the components of job
in terms of using employee skills at optimum
level.
Therefore, job design gives motivation,
satisfaction and meaning in the work.
Major job design techniques are given below:
i) Job Rotation
ii) Job Enlargement
iii) Job Enrichment
iv) Modified Work Schedules
- Shorter work week
- Flexible Time
- Job sharing
- Home work
6.7. Motivational Application Through Goal
Setting :
Goal setting is one of the motivational technique
by which employee can be motivated towards a
meaningful work.
If the organization set goal for employees, it will
create attention, effort and persistency towards
the work.
In addition, it will develop opportunity for
participation and commitment in employees.
This concept was developed by Edwin Locke
and Gary Latham. They advocates the linkage
between goal setting and performance.
The performance is based on the specific goal
which is moderated (balanced) by the
importance, commitment, confidence,
feedback and complexity of the task .
It also impacted by the mechanism of work in
terms of the working direction, effort,
persistence and strategies.
Thus we focused on the relationship between
conscious performance goals and level of task
performance.
i) Core Goal: It is widely recognized technique
which is improves the performance. It is evident to
keep specific or core goal for higher level of
performance.
ii) Moderators: After setting specific goal few
moderators play a vital role to make the goal
towards performance. They are :
* Goal Commitment: When an individual is committed
to the goal there is higher and strongest impact on goal
performance.
* Goal Importance: When an individual figures out the
importance of the set goal, he/she will put effort for
performance and attain the goal.
* Self Efficacy (Effectiveness): It is the perception and
belief of the individual that he/she can successfully
accomplish a specific task. It improves the goal
commitment. When a person is confident to achieve the
goal he/she will put more effort to achieve the goal.
* Feedback: It helps to adjust the level or
direction of their effort to match what the goal
requires.
* Task Complexity: It demands task skills,
ability and strategies to determine suitable
alternatives of task strategies. People need to
use varieties of strategies to make task easy.
iii) Mechanism: The goal performance is
affected by four mechanism: They are
explained as below:
• Choice and Direction- Firstly, goals serve a
directive function. If the person is right
direction to achieve the goal he/she will do
better performance.
• Effort: Secondly, high goals lead to greater
effort. It demands a greater physical effort,
repeated performance, measure an effort to
fulfill goals.
• Persistence: Thirdly, goal is affected by
persistence. This is the tendency of persistency
towards time spend in the task and intensity of
effort towards goal achievement.
• Strategies: Fourthly, goals is affected by
action and a particular action demands
strategies . Therefore, the use of task relevant
knowledge and strategies play vital role in the
course of goal achievement.
6.8. Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs):
An Employee Assistance Program (EAP) is a
free and confidential counseling service
offered by employers to their employees to
support their well-being in the workplace and
in their personal lives.
It is an interventional program that helps to
recognize and helps employees with resolving
their programs they may be facing due to work
or personal stressors.
It is a confidential, short term, counseling
service for employees with personal problems
that affect their work performance.
It is an employer- sponsored service designed for
personal or family problems, including mental
health, substance abuse, various addictions,
marital problems, emotional, financial and
legal problems.
These programs become a valuable to help
employees in coping with their stress and have
been found to consistent in reducing
absenteeism, health car costs and disciplinary
action.
6.9. Stress and Performance:
One of the major worry of the organization is the
negative impact of stress on job performance. If
the employees are under high stress, they tend
to withdraw in the form of turnover and
absenteeism.
There can be a positive as well as negative effects
of stress on performance. When stress is
reasonable and optimum level, it effects
positive to job performance. However, when
stress become distress, a negative effective can
be seen in performance.
