Lecture

Lecture 5
5
Fault
Fault Modeling
Modeling
 Why model faults?
 Some real defects in VLSI and PCB
 Common fault models
 Stuck-at faults
 Single stuck-at faults
 Fault equivalence
 Fault dominance and checkpoint theorem
 Classes of stuck-at faults and multiple faults
 Transistor faults
 Summary
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 Why
Why Model
Model Faults?
Faults?
 I/O function tests inadequate for
manufacturing (functionality versus
component and interconnect testing)
 Real defects (often mechanical) too
numerous and often not analyzable
 A fault model identifies targets for testing
 A fault model makes analysis possible
 Effectiveness measurable by experiments

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Some
Some Real
Real Defects
Defects in
in Chips
Chips
 Processing defects
 Missing contact windows
 Parasitic transistors
 Oxide breakdown
 . . .
 Material defects
 Bulk defects (cracks, crystal imperfections)
 Surface impurities (ion migration)
 . . .
 Time-dependent failures
 Dielectric breakdown
 Electromigration
 . . .
 Packaging failures
 Contact degradation
 Seal leaks
 . . .

Ref.: M. J. Howes and D. V. Morgan, Reliability and Degradation -

Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, Wiley, 1981.
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 Observed
Observed PCB
PCB Defects
Defects
Defect classes Occurrence frequency (%)

Shorts 51
Opens 1
Missing components 6
Wrong components 13
Reversed components 6
Bent leads 8
Analog specifications 5
Digital logic 5
Performance (timing) 5

Ref.: J. Bateson, In-Circuit Testing, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.

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 Common
Common Fault
Fault Models
Models
 Single stuck-at faults
 Transistor open and short faults
 Memory faults
 PLA faults (stuck-at, cross-point, bridging)
 Functional faults (processors)
 Delay faults (transition, path)
 Analog faults
 For more examples, see Section 4.4 (p. 60-
70) of the book.

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 Single
Single Stuck-at
Stuck-at Fault
Fault
 Three properties define a single stuck-at fault
 Only one line is faulty
 The faulty line is permanently set to 0 or 1
 The fault can be at an input or output of a gate
 Example: XOR circuit has 12 fault sites ( ) and
24 single stuck-at faults
Faulty circuit value
Good circuit value
c j
s-a-0 0(1)
a d 1(0)
1 g h
z
0 1 i
b e 1

f k
Test vector for h s-a-0 fault
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 Fault
Fault Equivalence
Equivalence
 Number of fault sites in a Boolean gate circuit
= #PI + #gates + # (fanout branches).
 Fault equivalence: Two faults f1 and f2 are
equivalent if all tests that detect f1 also
detect f2.
 If faults f1 and f2 are equivalent then the
corresponding faulty functions are identical.
 Fault collapsing: All single faults of a logic
circuit can be divided into disjoint equivalence
subsets, where all faults in a subset are
mutually equivalent. A collapsed fault set
contains one fault from each equivalence
subset.
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 Equivalence
Equivalence Rules
Rules
sa0 sa0
sa1 sa1
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 WIRE
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1
AND OR

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1
NOT
sa1 sa0

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0
NAND NOR
sa1
sa0
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1
sa1
sa0
FANOUT sa1
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 Equivalence
Equivalence Example
Example
sa0 sa1
Faults in red
sa0 sa1 removed by
sa0 sa1 equivalence
collapsing
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1
20
Collapse ratio = ----- = 0.625
32
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 Fault
Fault Dominance
Dominance
 If all tests of some fault F1 detect another fault
F2, then F2 is said to dominate F1.
 Dominance fault collapsing: If fault F2
dominates F1, then F2 is removed from the
fault list.
 When dominance fault collapsing is used, it is
sufficient to consider only the input faults of
Boolean gates. See the next example.
 In a tree circuit (without fanouts) PI faults form
a dominance collapsed fault set.
 If two faults dominate each other then they are
equivalent.
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 Dominance
Dominance Example
Example
All tests of F2
F1
s-a-1 001
F2
s-a-1 110 010
000
101 011
100

s-a-1 Only test of F1

s-a-1
s-a-1
s-a-0
A dominance collapsed fault set

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 Checkpoints
Checkpoints
 Primary inputs and fanout branches of a
combinational circuit are called checkpoints.
 Checkpoint theorem: A test set that detects
all single (multiple) stuck-at faults on all
checkpoints of a combinational circuit, also
detects all single (multiple) stuck-at faults in
that circuit.
Total fault sites = 16

Checkpoints ( ) = 10

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 Classes
Classes of
of Stuck-at
Stuck-at Faults
Faults
 Following classes of single stuck-at faults are
identified by fault simulators:
 Potentially-detectable fault -- Test produces an
unknown (X) state at primary output (PO);
detection is probabilistic, usually with 50%
probability.
 Initialization fault -- Fault prevents initialization of
the faulty circuit; can be detected as a potentially-
detectable fault.
 Hyperactive fault -- Fault induces much internal
signal activity without reaching PO.
 Redundant fault -- No test exists for the fault.
 Untestable fault -- Test generator is unable to find
a test.
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 Multiple
Multiple Stuck-at
Stuck-at Faults
Faults
 A multiple stuck-at fault means that any set
of lines is stuck-at some combination of (0,1)
values.
 The total number of single and multiple
stuck-at faults in a circuit with k single fault
sites is 3k-1.
 A single fault test can fail to detect the
target fault if another fault is also present,
however, such masking of one fault by
another is rare.
 Statistically, single fault tests cover a very
large number of multiple faults.
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Transistor
Transistor (Switch)
(Switch) Faults
Faults
 MOS transistor is considered an ideal switch
and two types of faults are modeled:
 Stuck-open -- a single transistor is permanently
stuck in the open state.
 Stuck-short -- a single transistor is permanently
shorted irrespective of its gate voltage.
 Detection of a stuck-open fault requires two
vectors.
 Detection of a stuck-short fault requires the
measurement of quiescent current (IDDQ).

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 Stuck-Open
Stuck-Open Example
Example
Vector 1: test for A s-a-0
(Initialization vector)
Vector 2 (test for A s-a-1)
pMOS VDD Two-vector s-op test
FETs
can be constructed by
0
A ordering two s-at tests
1
Stuck-
open
0 0
B
C 0 1(Z)

Good circuit states

nMOS
FETs Faulty circuit states
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Stuck-Short
Stuck-Short Example
Example
Test vector for A s-a-0

pMOS VDD
FETs IDDQ path in
A faulty circuit
1 Stuck-
short

0
B Good circuit state
C 0 (X)

nMOS
FETs Faulty circuit state

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 Summary
Summary
 Fault models are analyzable approximations of
defects and are essential for a test
methodology.
 For digital logic single stuck-at fault model
offers best advantage of tools and experience.
 Many other faults (bridging, stuck-open and
multiple stuck-at) are largely covered by stuck-
at fault tests.
 Stuck-short and delay faults and technology-
dependent faults require special tests.
 Memory and analog circuits need other
specialized fault models and tests.

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