GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA

AND THE HORN

GeES1011
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
 Geography: Definition

• It is difficult to forward a definition acceptable to all

geographers at all times and places because of the
dynamic nature of the discipline and the changes in its
scope and method of study.

Geography is the scientific study of the Earth that

describes and analyses spatial and temporal variations
of physical, biological and human phenomena, and their
interrelationships and dynamism over the surface of the
Earth.
 The Scope of Geography
• The scope of Geography is the surface of the Earth,
which is the very thin zone that is the interface of the
atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere,
which provides the habitable zone in which humans are
able to live.
 Approaches of Geography

1) Systematic (topical) Approach

study different physical reliefs, topography, commodities,
transport & other natural or anthropogenic features
systematically in respect to it's location, distribution, evolution
etc. all over a particular area.
2) Regional Approach
choose a particular area (it can be a natural region, a district, a
state etc.) & describe it topically.
 Five Basic
Themes of Geography
oLocation(Absolute location/astronomical/mathematical and Relative
location)
oPlace(the physical and human aspects of a location)

oHuman-environment interaction(dependency, adaptation, and

modification)

oMovement (translocation of human beings, their goods, and their

ideas from one end of the planet to another)

oRegion(a geographic area having distinctive characteristics that

distinguishes itself from adjacent unit(s) of space)
Location, Shape & Size of Ethiopia
and the Horn
• The Horn of Africa, a region of eastern Africa, is a narrow tip that
protrudes into the northern Indian Ocean, separating it from the Gulf of
Aden.

• It is home to the countries of Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Somalia.

• In terms of size, Ethiopia is the largest of all the Horn of African countries,
while Djibouti is the smallest.

• The Horn contains such diverse areas as the highlands of the Ethiopian
Plateau, the Ogaden desert, and the Eritrean and Somali coasts.

• Its coasts are washed by the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the Indian
Ocean.
The Horn of Africa
 Location of Ethiopia
The Absolute location of Ethiopia
• Astronomically, Ethiopia is a landlocked country located between 3°N
(Moyale) and 15°N (Bademe - the northernmost tip of Tigray) latitudes and
33°E (Akobo) to 48°E (the tip of Ogaden in the east) longitudes.

• The east west distance (15°) is longer than the north-south distance (12°).

o As a result of its latitudinal extension the country experiences tropical climate

o Due to its longitudinal extension there is a difference of one hour between

the most easterly and most westerly points of the country
 The Relative Location of Ethiopia
Vicinal location In relation to water bodies & land masses

Sudan to the west and northwest In the Horn of Africa

South Sudan to southwest Southwest of the Arabian Peninsula

Djibouti to the east Southwest of Europe

Somalia to the east and southeast Northwest of the Indian Ocean

Eritrea to the north and northeast In the Nile Basin

Kenya to the south

The implications of the location of Ethiopia
• Climate:
The fact that Ethiopia is located between 3°N and 15°N (between the
Equator and Tropic of Cancer) implies that the country has a tropical
climate, though modified by its altitude.

The location of Ethiopia relative to the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean
and the African and Asian landmass has also various bearings on the
climate of Ethiopia.
 The implications of the location…
• Socio-cultural:

Ethiopia is one of the earliest recipients of the major

world religions namely Christianity, Islam and Judaism
due to its proximity to the Middle East, which was the
origin of these religions.

The linguistic and other cultural relationships, which

Ethiopia shares with its neighbours, reflect the influence
of location.
The implications of the location…
• Political:

 Geopolitical considerations of superpowers

 Adjacency to the Red Sea (a major global trade route)

 The Middle East geopolitical paradigms.

 Size of Ethiopia
• Ethiopia with a total area of approximately
1,106,000 square kilometers is the 8th largest
country in Africa and 25th in the World.

• It extends about 1,639 kilometers East-West, and

1,577 kilometers North-South.

• About 0.7% of the country is covered by water

bodies.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethiopia’s Large Size
Advantages of Ethiopia’s Large Size
-Possesses diverse agro ecological zones

-Variety of natural resources

- Owns extensive arable land

-Has larger population size

-Home for diverse cultures

-Greater depth in defense external invasion

 Disadvantages of Ethiopia’s Large Size

- Demands greater capital to construct infrastructural facilities

-Requires large army to protect its territory

-Difficult for effective administration

-Difficult for socio-economic integration

The shape of Ethiopia and its Implication
• Kinds of Shape of Countries

o Compact

o Fragmented

o Elongated

o Perforated

o Protruded
It is easier for defence, socioeconomic and cultural integration
It is geographically long and relatively narrow
like Chile
Ways of Measuring Shape of Countries
(Indices of compactness)
• Indices of compactness measure the
deviation of the shape of a country from a
circular shape, which is the most compact
shape
Four Most Commonly Used Measures of
Compactness
1. The ratio of area of country to
its boundary length: Area-
Boundary ratio. The higher the
A/B ratio, the greater the
degree of compactness.
2. The ratio of boundary length of a country to the
circumference of a circle having the same area as the
country itself: Boundary-Circumference ratio.

• It measures how far the boundary of a country

approximates the circumference of a circle of its own
size.

• the nearer the ratio to 1 the more compact the country

is.
3. The ratio of the area of the country to the
circumference of the smallest inscribing circle: Area-
Circumference ratio.

• It compares the area of the country with the

circumference of a circle that passes touching the
extreme points on the boundary of the country.

• The higher the A/C ratio, the greater the degree of

compactness.
4. The ratio of the actual area of a country to the smallest
possible inscribing circle: Area-Area (A/A’) ratio.
• The area of the inscribing circle is the area of the smallest
possible circle whose circumference passes through the
extreme points on the boundary.

• Half-length of the longest distance between two extreme

points gives radius of the inscribing circle.

• The nearer the ratio to 1, the more compact the country is.
Ethiopia's shape compared to its neighbors
in the Horn
Country Area(km2) Boundary A/B ratio B/C ratio A/C ratio
(km)
Ethiopia 1,106,000 5,260 210.27 1.41 296.61

Djibouti 22,000 820 26.83 1.56 41.83

Eritrea 117,400 2,420 48.51 1.99 96.83

Kenya 582,644 3,600 161.85 1.33 215.28

Somalia 637,657 5,100 125.03 1.80 225.22

Basic Skills of Map Reading
• What is a Map?

o A map is a two-dimensional scaled representation of part or whole of

the Earth surface on a flat body such as piece of paper, black board,
wood or cloth.

o Map reading encompasses a systematic identification of natural features

and manmade features.
Importance of maps
• Provide the basis for making geographical details of regions
represented i.e. the geographical facts of an area such as relief,
drainage, settlement etc.

• Maps are powerful tools for making spatial analysis of

geographical facts of areas represented.

• Maps are useful for giving location of geographical features by

varied methods of grid reference, place naming etc.
 Types of Map

• There are many types of maps according to their purpose and functions

Topographical maps

o Topographic maps depict one or more natural and cultural features of an area.

o They could be small, medium or large scale depending on the size of the area
represented.

o Contents of topographical maps depend on purpose of a map, scale of a map, date of

compilation, and nature of the land represented.
Topographical maps
Special purpose/statistical maps
• Special purpose/statistical maps: These are maps, which show
distribution of different aspects such as temperature, rainfall,
settlement, vegetation etc.
Marginal Information on Maps (Elements of Maps)

• Marginal information is shown on a map to

enable the reading and interpretation of the
geographical information of an area
represented.
Marginal Information
Marginal Information
• Title: It is the heading of the given map which tells what the map is all
about.

• Key (legend): It is the list of all convectional symbols and signs shown on
the map with their interpretation.

• Scale: It is the ratio between the distance on the map and the actual
ground distance.
North arrow

• It is indicated with the north direction on a map; used to know

the other important directions of the mapped area like east,
west, south, and west.

Margin
• Is the frame of the map.

Date of compilation
• It is a date of map publication.
THE GEOLOGY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

•Geology is an Earth science that studies the

evolution of the earth, the materials of which it
is made of, and the processes acting upon them.

• Geology studies how Earth's materials,

structures, processes and organisms have
changed over time.
Clues For Geological Events

1. Direct Methods

2. Indirect Methods
•Direct Methods:

-rocks and landforms

• Indirect Methods

-geophysics (e.g. studying earthquake waves which

can penetrate deep beneath the Earth’s surface)

-geochemistry (analysis of the detailed composition

of rocks)

-geochronology (methods for finding the ages of

rocks, usually from the radioactive elements they
contain)
•The earth’s continents were once bunched
up together in to a single huge continent
called Pangaea.
THE GEOLOGY OF …
•The large super continent was then split into
Gondwanaland where Africa is a part and
Laurasia; and later into smaller fragments
over the last million years.

•These then drifted apart to form the present

arrangement of continents.
 Wegener’s Principal
Observations
•Fit of the continents: The opposing
coastlines of continents often fit together.

•Match of mountain belts, rock types: If the

continents are reassembled as Pangaea,
mountains in West Africa, North America,
Greenland, and Western Europe match up.
 Wegener’s Principal…
• Distribution of fossils: The distribution of plants
and animal fossils on separate continents forms
definite linked patterns if the continents are
reassembled.
• Paleoclimates: rocks formed 200 million years
ago in India, Australia, South America, and
southern Africa all exhibited evidence of
continental glaciations.
Fit of the
continents
Distribution of
fossils
Paleoclimates
The Geologic Processes

-Internal /Endogenic
-External /Exogenic
 The Internal Processes (Endogenic)
•Volcanic activity and all the tectonic
processes (folding, faulting,
orogenesis/mountain building), and
epeirogenesis (slow rising and
sinking of the landmass).
Endogenic Processes
The External (Exogenic/Geomorphic) Processes
•Weathering, mass transfer, erosion
and deposition.

•They act upon the volcanic and

structural landforms by modifying,
roughening and lowering them down.
 The Geological Time Scale and Age Dating
Techniques
•The geological history is divided in
to Eras.
•Each Era is divided into periods.
•The Eras are given names that
indicate the kind of life that existed
in them.
•the Paleozoic Era (ancient life) is the
age of invertebrates

• the Mesozoic Era (the middle life) is

the age of reptiles

• the Cenozoic Era (recent life) is the age

of mammals
• Geological time divisions basically differ from each
other in such characteristics as:

- the relative position of land and sea

- the kind of climate
- the kind of animal & plant life that
developed & existed during that Era or
period
•The Earth is believed to have been formed
approximately 4.5 billion years ago and the
earliest forms of life were thought to have
originated approximately 3.5 billion years ago.

•The span of time before life appeared was

termed the Precambrian Era.
 The Geological Time Scale
• The geological time scale measures time on a scale
involving four main units

1. Epoch
2. Periods
3. Eras
4. Eon
1. An epoch is the smallest unit of time on the scale
and encompasses a period of millions of years.

2. Chronologically, epochs are clumped together into

larger units called periods.

3. Periods are combined to make subdivisions called

Eras.

4. An eon is the largest period of geological time.

•The division of time units in the
geological time scale is usually based on
the occurrence of significant geological
events (e.g. mass extinctions).

•As such, the geological time categories

do not usually consist of a uniform
length of time.
 The Geological time scale
Era Period Began (in End (my) Major Events
Million Years) (million years
ago)

Cenozoic Quaternary 1.6 Present Major glaciers

in North
America and
Europe (1.5)
Tertiary 70 1.6 Rocky
Mountains
(65), individual
continents take
shape
The Age of Reptiles
 Mesozoic
Era Period Began (in Million End (my) Major Events
Years) (million years
ago)
Cretaceous 146 70 Dinosaurs extinct
(65), western
interior seaway
and marine
reptiles (144 – 65)

Jurassic 208 146 Pangaea (one

Mesozoic land mass) begins
to break up (200)

Triassic 225 208 First mammals

and dinosaurs
Era Period Began (in Million End (my) Major Events (million
Years) years ago)

Permian 290 225 Greatest extinction

on Earth (245)

Pennsylvanian 322 290 First reptiles

Mississippian 362 322 Coal-forming forests
Paleozoic
Devonian 408 362 First land animals and
first forests (408)

Silurian 439 408 Life invades land

Ordovician 510 439 First fish appeared

Cambria 600 510 Great diversity of

marine invertebrates
 Precambrian

Era Period Began (in Million End (my) Major Events

Years) (million years
ago)

Precambrian Proterozoic 2,500 600 Marine fossil

invertebrates
(600)
Archean 4,500 2,500 Earliest fossils
recorded(3,500)

Earliest rock
formation (4,000)
Age Dating Techniques/ techniques
of knowing the age of rocks

•Absolute Age Dating

•Relative Age Dating
 Absolute Dating/Numerical
dating/Radiometric Techniques
•Absolute dating is the process of
determining an age on a specified
chronology in archaeology and geology.
•Give rocks an actual date, or date range,
in number of years.
 Relative Dating
• Relative Dating uses geological evidence to
assign comparative ages of fossils.
• Two ways to know the relative age of a rock
1. to look at any fossils the rock may contain
2. to use the "What is on top of the older
rocks?"
 Geological Processes and the Resulting
Landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn
 Geological Processes and the Resulting
Landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn
The Precambrian Era (4.5 billion - 600 million years ago)

•covers 5/6th of the Earth’s history.

•Due to its remoteness in time and the

absence of well-preserved fossils, our
knowledge of the events is limited.
 The major geologic event of the Precambrian
Era
The major geological
process of this Era was
Orogenesis
• The land was subjected to intense folding
• Intrusive igneous activity
• Formation of huge mountain ranges
• In between the orogenic periods and after the
last orogenesis, there were long periods of
denudation, which finally reduced these
mountains to near-level (peneplained) rock
surfaces.
Distribution of Precambrian rocks in Ethiopia

• In the western Part: Gambella, Benishangul-

Gumuz (Metekel and Asossa), western
Gojjam, western Wellega, Illuababora, and
Abay Gorge
• In the southern Part: Guji, southern Omo,
and parts of southern Bale and Borena
• In the eastern part: Eastern Hararghe
Distribution of Precambrian rocks in Ethiopia
The Paleozoic Era Geologic Processes (600
million - 225 million years ago)
• The major geological process of this Era was denudation.
• The once gigantic mountain ranges were reduced to a “peneplained”
surface.
• Undulating plain with some residual features (inselbergs) here and
there was formed.
• The sediments were transported southward and eastward to form
continental (in Africa) and marine deposits, respectively.
• Because of the limited deposition within Ethiopia, rocks belonging to
this Era are rare in the country.
The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes (225-
70 million years ago)
•An Era of alternate slows sinking and
rising (epeirogenesis) of the landmass

•The land tilted eastward-lower in the

southeast and higher in the northwest
The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes…

• Sea invasion starting from Somalia and

Ogaden and slowly spreading
northwestward(late Triassic & continued up
to Jurassic period)

• Sands deposited over the peneplained

Precambrian rock surface
 The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes…
• As the depth of the sea increased, mud (shale),
gypsum and later lime deposited

• The flourishing of marine life and decaying and

precipitating of their remains, as the sea stayed
long

• Mesozoic rocks have the greatest potential for oil

and gas deposits
The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes…

•Compression by the overlying

rocks and by cementing
minerals, the sands and lime
compacted to form Adigrat sand
stone and Hintalo limestone
 The Mesozoic Era Geologic Processes…

•As surface rocks, these old marine

sediments are extensively found in the
Southeast lowlands
•Other exposures include central Tigray,
and along the Gorges of Abay and
Wabishebelle Rivers
 The Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes
(70million years ago - Present)
• The most recent of the geologic Eras
• Responsible(tectonic & volcanic activities)for the present-day
landmass of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa
Major Geologic Events:
-Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring
of huge quantity of lava
-Formation of the Rift Valley
-Quaternary volcanism and deposition
Uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian landmass and outpouring
of lava flood

• This huge uplift continued to the Paleocene and Oligocene

epoch of the Tertiary period
• Uplifting of greater magnitude occurred during the Eocene
epoch(The greatest uplift was in central Ethiopia)
• This uplifting was of an epeirogenic character
Epeirogenic movement is upheavals or depressions of land
exhibiting long wavelengths and little folding apart from
broad undulations
The Cenozoic Era Geologic Processes…
• The out pouring of flood of basalt spread widely and
extensively and covered a large part of the Mesozoic
sedimentary layer to form the Ethiopian plateau
surface and also the floor of the present-day Rift
Valley(Rift Valley not yet formed)

• Spreading of the Trappean lava or Trap Series lava

over the Mesozoic sediments
The Formation of the Rift Valley
• A rift valley is a linear shaped lowland between several highlands or
mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic rift or fault
 Rift Valley…
• The formation of the Rift Valley is said to be related with the theory of plate
tectonics
• The major faulting movement began in the late Oligocene and Miocene
Epochs of the Cenozoic Era
• This rifted the Red Sea trough, which began to be flooded from the north
• The major rifting, affecting the whole African Rift System, including that of
Ethiopia and the Gulf of Aden took place in the Miocene Epoch
• Rifting and faulting continued all the time throughout the Pliocene and even
the Pleistocene Epochs
 Rift Valley…
• The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden connected as a result of the rifting and
faulting of the land bridge that separated them

• At the same period (Pliocene), the Afar depression (including the Gulf of Zula)
down-faulted allowing the Red Sea water to penetrate far inside

• Reversed tilting and volcanic activity, later (Pleistocene) blocked the

connection and isolated the extension of the sea, allowing much of the water
to evaporate
The Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley
• Extends from Palestine-Jordan in the north to Malawi-Mozambique in
the south, for a distance of about 7,200 kilometers(5,600 kilometers in
Africa, and 1,700 kilometers in Eritrea and Ethiopia)

• On land, the widest part of the Rift Valley is the Afar Triangle (200-300
km)

• The Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, and the East African System meet and
form the triangular depression of the Afar where the Kobar Sink lies
about 125 meters below sea level
The Spatial Extent of the Rift Valley
• The formation of the Gulf of Aden and the separation of the Arabian
Peninsula from the Horn of Africa also took place during the Tertiary
period

• The Rift Valley region of Ethiopia is the most unstable part of the
country

• There are numerous hot springs, fumaroles, active volcanoes, geysers,

and frequent earthquakes
A geyser is a spring characterized by intermittent
discharge of water ejected turbulently and
accompanied by steam.

Fumarole

A fumarole is an opening in a planet's crust which

emits steam and gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen chloride, and hydrogen sulfide.

Geyser
Structural (physiographic) effects of the
formation of the Rift Valley
• It divides the Ethiopian Plateau into two
• It separates the Arabian landmass from African
landmass
• It causes the formation of the Dead Sea, Red
Sea and the Gulf of Aden troughs
• It creates basins and fault depressions on which
the Rift Valley lakes are formed
Quaternary Volcanic Eruptions and
Depositions
• Recent volcanic activities that took place after
the formation of the Rift Valley(occurred in the
Pliocene-Pleistocene Epochs)

• Occurred in the form of renewed rifting/faulting

and more volcanism(the floor of the Rift Valley
and the region south of Lake Tana, Aden
volcanics)
 The basic volcanic features of the Aden
series
• Numerous and freshly preserved volcanic cones(explosive craters)
• Active volcanos- Dubi, Erta Ale, Afrera
• Erta Ale is the most active volcano in Ethiopia
• Volcanic hills and mountains, some of which are semi-dormant
(Fantale, Boseti-Gouda near Adama, Aletu north of Lake Ziway,
Chebbi north of Lake Hawassa etc.)
• Extensive lava fields and lava sheets some of which are very recent
• Lava ridges
• Thermal springs, fumaroles
Quaternary Deposition
• During the Quaternary period the Earth experienced a marked
climatic change(the time of the last ‘’Ice Age’’ in the middle and high
latitude areas and the time of the ‘‘Pluvial Rains’’ in Africa)
• The heavy Pluvial Rains eroded the Ethiopian plateau and the eroded
materials deposited in the Rift Valley lakes
• The excessive rain resulted in an excessive surface flow
• Ziway-Langano-Shalla; Hawasa-Shalla; Chamo-Abaya; and Lake Abe
and the nearby smaller lakes and marsh basins formed huge lakes
• The Earth’s climate became warmer and drier after the ‘‘Pluvial Rains’’
 Quaternary Deposition…
• Lacustrine deposits of continental origin around many of the Ethiopian lakes,
river valleys and lowlands
Types of deposits
a. Lacustrine deposits: Deposits on former lakebeds, and swampy depressions
b. Fluvial deposits: Deposits on the banks of rivers, flood plains both in plateau,
foothills etc.
c. Glacio-fluvial deposits and erosional features: These are occurred on high
mountains, such as Bale and Kaka Mountains
d. Aeolian deposits: Are windblown deposits
e. Coastal and marine deposits: Deposits on sea invaded and sea-covered places
 Quaternary Deposition…
• The quaternary deposits mainly found in the Rift Valley
(Afar and Lakes Region), Baro lowlands, southern
Borena, and parts of northwestern low lands
• Generally, the Cenozoic rocks cover 50% of the land
mass of the country
• These include Highland Tertiary volcanics (basalts),
Tertiary as well as Quaternary volcanics, and sediments
of the rift valley
Rock and Mineral Resources of Ethiopia
• The occurrence of metallic minerals in Ethiopia is associated with the
Precambrian rocks/basement rocks
Brief Facts and Current State of Main
Minerals in Ethiopia
• Ethiopia has abundant mineral resources of metals and precious
metals, coal, and industrial minerals
 Gold

Primary gold deposits

• Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) and Adola
• Dermi-dama, Sakoro and Lega-dembi
Secondary gold deposits
• Adola, Murmur Basin, Shakiso, Awata Basin, Dawa Basin, Ghenale Basin, Ujama
Basin,Makanisa (Guba and Wombera), Kaffa
• Gambella and Illuababora (Akobo River)
• Sidama (Wondo)
• Borena (Negele-Yabelo area)
• Benishangul-Gumuz (Sherkole)
• West Wellega
• Mengi-Tumat-Shangul areas to the Sudanese border
• The drainage of the Didessa and Birbir
 Platinum
• The Yubdo area in Wellega(the only active Ethiopian Platinum mine)
• Platinum occurrences have been reported from Delatti in Wellega,
and the valley of Demi-Denissa and Bone Rivers as well as Tullu
Mountain area in Sidama
 Tantalum
• Significant deposit of tantalum and niobium in southern
Ethiopia(Adola/ Kenticha Tantalum mine)
 Lignite Deposits
• Extensive lignite deposits in Nedjo (Wellega), and in small amounts in Chilga (Gonder) in
the sedimentary formations laid in between Trapean lava
• Also in many localities:
-Beressa Valley & Ankober (North Shewa)
-Sululta (nearAddis Ababa)
-Muger Valley (West Shewa)
-Aletu valley (near Nedjo)
-Kariso & Selmi Valleys (Debrelibanos)
-Zega Wodem Gorge (near Fiche)
-Didessa Valley (southwest of Nekemte)
-Kindo & Challe Valley (Omo confluence)
-Adola,Wuchalle (north of Dessie)
-Chukga area (on Gonder-Metema road)
-Dessie area (near Borkena River)
 Gemstones

occur in many parts of Ethiopia, mainly in Amhara and

Oromia Regional States
 Potash
• The potash reserve in the Danakil (Dallol Depression) of the Afar
region
 Gypsum and Anhydrite
• Very large deposits occur in sedimentary formations of the Red Sea coastal area,
Danakil Depression, Ogaden, Shewa, Gojjam, Tigray, and Hararghe

Anhydrite

Gypsum Anhydrite
 Clay
• Alluvial clay deposits occur in Adola, Abay gorge, and the Rift Valley
lakes region
• Ceramic clay found at Ambo and Adola
 Marble
• West of Mekelle and south of Adwa in Tigray
• In the east in Galetti, Soka, Ramis, Rochelle, Kumi and other valleys of
Chercher Mountain in West Hararghe
• In the northwestern in Gonder, and the Dabus River and other
neighboring river basins in Benishangul-Gumuz and Gojjam
 Construction stones
• Basalt, granite, limestone and sandstone are important building
stones
• For the surfacing of roads and compaction-basalt, scoria and other
volcanic rocks
• Mesozoic limestone- an important raw material for cement and chalk
production
• The earlier cement works at Dire Dawa and the recent ones at Muger
Valley, Abay Gorge (Dejen), Tigray (Messebo) are using similar raw
materials from these rock formations
 Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia
1. The Western and South-western-greenstone belt
-Primary gold occurrences (Dul,Tulu-Kape,Oda-Godere,
Akobo,Baruda,Bekuji-Motish and Kalaj)
-Yubdo Platinum
-Base metals of AzaliAkendeyu, Abetselo
-KataFakushu Molybdenite
-Iron deposits of Bikilal, Chago, Gordana and Korre
-Benshagul-Gumuz- Marble
-Akobo and Asosa placer gold deposits
 Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia…
2. The Southern greenstone belt
• The Adola belt, which comprises the primary gold
deposits and occurrences of Lega-dembi, Sakaro,
Wellena, Kumudu, Megado-Serdo, Dawa Digati,
Moyale and Ababa River
• The columbo-tantalite of Kenticha and Meleka
• The Adola nickel deposit and other industrial minerals
 Mineral Potential Sites of Ethiopia…

3. The Northern greenstone belt(Tigray)

• This belt comprises of the primary gold
occurrences of Terakemti, Adi-Zeresenay, and
Nirague
• The base metals of Terer, Tsehafiemba and other
parts of Tigray
• Placer gold occurrences of Tigray
 THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN
• The topography of Ethiopia largely determined by the geologic
activities of the Cenozoic Era
-The uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian swell
-Outpouring, spreading and thick accumulation of
Trapean lava(
outward sloping highland plateau and mountains)
-Major faulting(division of the plateau into two broad
units and the formation of a great structural/rift valley)
General Characteristics of the Ethiopian
Physiography
• Great diversity(flat-topped plateaus, high and rugged mountains,
deep river gorges and vast plains)
• Altitude ranges from 125 meters below sea level (Kobar Sink) to the
highest mountain in Ethiopia, Mount Ras Dashen/fourth highest
mountain in Africa (4,620 m.a.s.l)
• Largest proportion of elevated landmass in the African continent(the
Roof of East Africa/Water Tower of East Africa)
• More than 50% of the Ethiopian landmass above 1,000 meters of
elevation; and above 1,500 meters makes 44% of the country(Half of
this, in turn, is at more than 2,000 meters above sea level)
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands(56% of
the area)
• Moderate and high amount of rainfall (>600 mm
per year)
• Lower mean annual temperature (<200C)
• Favorable climate for biotic life
• Enabled rain-fed agriculture
• Free from tropical diseases
• Attractive for human habitation and densely
settled
 Sub-divisions of Ethiopian Highlands

•Lower highland (1,000 - 2,000

m.a.s.l), which make up 35%
•Higher highland (>2,000 m.a.s.l)
constituting nearly 22%
 Characteristics of Ethiopian lowlands(44%
of the area)
• Fewer amounts of rainfall and higher temperature
• High prevalence of tropical diseases
• Lower population densities
• Nomadic and semi-nomadic economic life
• Vast plain lands favourable for irrigation
agriculture along the lower river basins
 Major physiographic divisions of Ethiopia

•The Western highlands and lowlands

•The South-eastern (Eastern) highlands and

lowlands

•The Rift Valley

 The Western Highlands and Lowlands
•All the area west of the Rift Valley

• Makes up about 44% of the area of the country

•Further subdivided into four groups of highlands

(76.3%) and four groups of lowlands (23.7%)
 The Western Highlands
• The Tigray Plateau
-extends from the Tekeze Gorge in the south to central Eritrean
highlands
-separated from the Eritrean plateau by the Mereb River
-an elongated highland
- high mountains in this plateau:
-Mount Tsibet (3988 m.a.s.l)
-Mount Ambalage (3291 m.a.s.l)
-Mount Assimba (3248 m.a.s.l)
• The famous monastery at Debre-Damo, a tableland located in this
plateau
 North Central Massifs
• the largest in the western highlands(drained by Abay, Tekeze and their tributaries)
• the second highest physiographic division(next to the Shewan Plateau)
• consists of the Gonder, Wello and Gojjam Massif
• Out of the 26 mountain peaks with altitude of more than 4,000m.a.s.l in Ethiopia, 19
mountain peaks found in this physiographic region
• Major mountains include:
-Mount Ras Dashen (4,620 m.a.s.l)
-Mount Weynobar/Ancua (4462 m.a.s.l)
-Mount KidisYared (4453 m.a.s.l) and Mount Bwahit (4437 m.a.s.l) in the Simen
Mountain System
- Mount Guna (4,231m.a.s.l) in the Debre Tabour Mountain System
- Abune Yoseph (4,260 m.a.s.l) in the Lasta highlands of Wello
-Mount Birhan (4,154 m.a.s.l) in the Choke Mountain System in Gojjam
 North Central Massifs…
• The Mountain systems in Gonder and Gojjam are separated
from the eastern group of mountains in Wello by
impenetrable and deep gorges(connected by YejuWadla
Delanta land bridge/ridge)

• This land bridge served as a route of penetration by the Turks,

Portuguese, and Italians etc.

• The Woreta-Debre Tabor-Woldya road constructed to link the

northwestern region with Asseb through Woldya and Dessie
took advantage of this land bridge.
 The Shewa Plateau/central highlands
• The Shewan plateau bounded by:
-the Rift Valley in the east and southeast
-by the Abay Gorge in its northern and western limit
-the Omo Gorge in the south and west
• The smallest of the Western highlands(11% of the area
of the whole physiographic region)
• Has the largest proportion of elevated ground(Nearly
three fourth of its area at an altitude of more than
2,000 meters above sea level)
 The Shewa Plateau…
• Drained by the tributaries of Abay, Omo, and Awash
• Divide three river basins(Abay, Omo & Awash)
• Major mountains:
- Mount Abuye-Meda (4,000 m.a.s.l) in Northern
Shewa
- Mount Guraghe in the south(3,721 m.a.s.l)
The South-western Highlands
• consist of the highlands of Wellega, Illuababora,
Jimma, Kaffa, Gamo and Gofa
• the wettest in Ethiopia
• drained by Dabus, Deddessa (tributaries of
Abay), Baro, Akobo and the Ghibe/Omo rivers
• highest peak-Guge Mountain(4,200 meters
above sea level)
The Western Lowlands
• extend from Western Tigray in the north to southern Gamo-
Gofa in the South
• further subdivided into four by the protruding ridges
-Tekeze lowland
- Abay-Dinder lowland
- Baro lowland
-Ghibe lowland
• irrigation agriculture
The Southeastern Highlands and Lowlands
• Second largest in terms of area(37% of the area of Ethiopia)
• Important grains producing areas
• Subdivided into two units of highlands and two units of extensive lowlands
The Southeastern Highlands
-The Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands(Mount Kaka 4,180 m.a.s.l, Mount
Bada 4,139 m.a.s.l and Mount Chilalo 4,036 m.a.s.l)
-The Hararghe Plateau
• The Bale highlands separated from the Arsi highlands by the head and main
stream of Wabishebelle
• Major picks-Tulu-Demtu (4,377 m.a.s.l) and Mount Batu (4,307 m.a.s.l), Senetti
plateau
The Southeastern Highlands and Lowlands
• The Sidama Highlands are separated from the Bale Highlands by the
Ghenale river valley
• Prominent feature- the Jemjem plateau(an important coffee growing
area)
• Drained by Wabishebelle and Ghenale rivers
• Weyb River, tributary of Ghenale, has cut an underground passage
(Sof Omar cave) through the Mesozoic Limestone rocks
• The cave is found near Bale Mountains(one of the World's most
spectacular and extensive underground caverns)
The Hararghe Plateau

• extends from the Chercher highlands in the

south-west to Jigjiga in the east
• has the smallest proportion of upper
highland (>2,000 meters)
• The highest mountain here is Mount Gara-
Muleta (3,381 m.a.s.l)
The Southeastern Lowlands
• make up 54% of the area of the physiographic
region and around one-fifth of the country
• divided into Wabishebelle plain (60%) and the
Ghenale Plain (40%)
• include the plains of Ogaden, Elkere, and Borena
• little used and support very small population
 The Rift Valley
• a tectonically formed structural depression
• separated the Ethiopian Highlands and Lowlands in to two
• extends from the Afar triangle in the north to Chew Bahir for about
1,700 km2
• covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia
• elongated and funnel shaped, with a NE-SW orientation
• the widest in the Afar Triangle and narrows down to the south
• subdivided into three physiographic sub-regions(the Afar Triangle, the
Main Ethiopian Rift, and the Chew Bahir Rift)
 The Afar Triangle

• the largest and widest part of the Rift Valley(54% of the Rift
Valley area)
• hosts one of the most hostile environments on Earth
(maximum temperatures can exceed 50°C during the
summer wet season)
• characterized by faulted depressions (grabens), volcanic hills,
active volcanoes, volcanic ridges, lava fields and low lava
platforms
• Lakes (Abe, Asale, and Afrera) occupy some of these basins
The Main Ethiopian Rift/Central Rift
• narrow belt of the Rift Valley that extends from Awash
River in the north to Lake Chamo in the south
• the narrowest and the highest
• dotted by cinder cones and volcanic
mountains(Mount Fentale, Boseti-guda (near Adama),
Aletu (north of Lake Ziway) and Chebi (north of Lake
Hawasa)
• prominent features are the numerous lakes
The Chew Bahir Rift
• the smallest and the southern-most part of the
Rift Valley
• highlands of Konso and the surrounding
highlands separate it from the Main Ethiopian
Rift to the north
• broad and shallow depression, which is a marshy
area covered by tall grass, into which the Segen
and Woito streams empty
The Impacts of Relief on Biophysical and
Socioeconomic Conditions
1. Agricultural practices
• Relief influences farm size and shape in that in an area of rugged
terrain the farmlands are small in size and fragmented and tend to be
irregular in shape
• Choice of farming techniques
• Crop production(barely & wheat-high altitude; sorghum& maize-low
altitude)
• Practice of animal husbandry(sheep-high altitude; goats-low altitude)
2. Settlement pattern
• Highlands-densely settled(free from most of the
tropical diseases)
• Rugged and difficult terrain hinders the
development of settlement and its expansion
• The highlands are characterized by sedentary life
and permanent settlements while lowlands are
inhabited by pastoralists/e temporary
settlements
3. Transportation and communication

• highly dissected landscape is a barrier to the development of

internal surface transportation/isolation of many
communities
• difficult terrain makes infrastructure development and
maintenance costly
• TV and radio communications highly influenced by relief
• rugged topography rendered rivers less navigable due to the
waterfalls, deep gorges and steep cliffs
4. Hydroelectric power potential
• The great difference in altitude coupled with high rainfall
created suitable conditions for a very high potential for the
production of hydroelectric power in Ethiopia
5. Socio-cultural feeling
• The rugged terrain as a result of excessive surface dissection
resulted in the long-term isolation of communities that led to
the occurrence of cultural diversity
• People who live in the highlands have been identifying
themselves as degegnas (mountaineers) and those who live
in the lowlands as kollegnas (lowlanders)
6. Impacts on climate
• The climate of Ethiopia is a result of the tropical position of the
country and the great altitudinal variation of the general topography
• Highlands with higher amount of rainfall and lower rate of evapo-
transpiration tend to be moisture surplus compared to the moisture
deficit lowlands
7. Impacts on soil
• Steep mountain slopes provide low angle of rest, unstable surface
materials and subject to degradation processes and relatively form
shallow and little developed soils
8. Impacts on natural vegetation
• Relief through its effect on climate and hydrology affect the type of
natural vegetation grown in an area
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND WATER RESOURCE OF
ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
• The flow of water through well-defined channel is known as drainage
• A drainage system is made up of a principal river and its tributaries (the rivers
that flow into it)
• Around 0.7 % of the total land mass of Ethiopia is covered by water bodies
• The country’s surface water potential estimated at 124.4 billion cubic meters/
the water tower of “Eastern Africa”
• The general patterns of major river basins in Ethiopia
are determined by topographical structures which can
be clarified as:
• The topography of the outward sloping of the Western
and South eastern plateaus
• The structural formation of the Rift Valley with its in-
ward-sloping escarpments resulting mainly in an
inland drainage system
• Faults and joints that structurally influence part of the
courses of many rivers
The Major Drainage Systems
•Western Drainage Systems

•Southeastern Drainage Systems

•Rift Valley Drainage Systems

The Western Drainage Systems
• the largest of all drainage systems draining 40 percent of the total area
of the country and carry 60 percent of the annual water flow
• comprises four major river basins namely the Tekeze, Abay, Baro-
Akobo, Ghibe (Omo)
• Abay-the largest river both in volumetric discharge and coverage in the
western drainage systems
• Abay rises from Lake Tana (some sources indicate its origin from Sekela,
Choke mountain)
• More than 60 streams drain the Abay,the largest of these is Ghilgel
Abay (Little Abay)
The Western Drainage…
• Tekeze River has two main tributaries (Angereb and Goang)which rise
in the central highlands of Ethiopia
• Tekeze River is termed Atbara in Sudan, which is a tributary of the Nile
• The Baro-Akobo and Ghibe / Omo rivers drain the wettest highlands in
the south and southwestern Ethiopia
• The Baro together with Akobo forms the Sobat River in South Sudan
• The Ghibe / Omo River finally empties in to the Chew-Bahir at the
mouth of Lake Turkana (an elongated Rift Valley lake) thereby forming
an inland drainage.
The South-eastern Drainage Systems
• Nearly the entire physiographic region of southeastern part of Ethiopia is
drained by the southeastern drainage systems
• Drained by Wabishebelle and Ghenale Rivers
• Major highlands of this basin include plateaus of Arsi, Bale, Sidama and
Harerghe
• Wabshebelle and Ghenale rivers cross the border into Somalia, carrying
25 percent of the annual water flow of Ethiopia
• Ghenale River covers parts of Oromia, SNNPR, and Somali regions
• Ghenale has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabishebelle.
In Somalia it is named the Juba River
The South-eastern Drainage
• Wabishebelle is the largest river in terms catchment
area
• It drains parts of Oromia, Harari and the Somali
regions
• It is the longest river in Ethiopia
• the Wabishebelle fails to reach the Indian Ocean
where at the end of its journey it flows parallel to the
coast before its water disappears in the sands, just
near the Juba River
 The Rift Valley Drainage System
• The Rift Valley drainage system is an area of small amount of rainfall,
high evaporation and small catchment area
• In the Rift Valley drainage systems, there is no one general flow
direction
• Awash is the only major river basin
-covers parts of the Amhara, Oromia, Afar, Somali, Dire Dawa, and
Addis Ababa City Administration
• Awash is the most utilized river in the country
• Awash flows in a northeast direction, finally ends in a maze of small
lakes and marshy area; the largest of which is Lake Abe on the Ethio-
Djibouti border
• The Afar drainage sub-basin has practically no stream flow
• It is an area of little rain, very high temperature and very high
evaporation
• Lake Afrera and Asale are the only main surface waters The Afar
drainage sub-basin has practically no stream flow
• The Southern part of the Rift Valley sub-basin is described as lakes
region
• Small streams drain down from the nearby mountain slopes which
supply water to the lakes(e.g.,Meki and Katar Rivers flow into Ziway;
Bilate into Abaya; and Segen into Chew Bahir)
• Some of these lakes are interconnected- Lakes Ziway and Langano
drain into Lake Abijiata through the small streams of Bulbula and
Horocolo respectively
Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes and Sub-
Surface Water
The Ethiopian Rivers
• Ethiopian rivers form 12 major watersheds separating the
Mediterranean Sea from the Indian Ocean drainage systems
Data on major Ethiopian rivers
River Catchment Annual Volume Terminus/Mouth Major tributaries
Area(km2) billion cubic meters
Abay 199,812 54.5 Mediterranean Dabus, Dedessa,
Fincha, Guder,
Muger, Jema,
Beshilo
Wabishebelle 202,697 3.4 Coast of Indian Ramis Erer, Daketa
Ocean Fafan
Genale Dawa 171,042 6 Indian-Ocean Dawa, Weyb,
Welmel, Mena
Awash 114,123 4.9 Inland (within Akaki, Kesem,
Ethiopia) Borkena, Mile
Tekeze 87,733 8.2 Mediterranean Goang, Angereb
Gibe (Omo) 79,000 16.6 Lake Turkana Gojeb
Baro Akobo 75,912 23.23 Mediterranean Akobo
General Characteristics of Ethiopian
Rivers
• Almost all major rivers originate from the highlands elevating more
than 1500 meters above sea level
• Majority of Ethiopian rivers are trans-boundary
• characterized by extreme seasonal fluctuation
• have rapids and waterfalls along their course
• have cuts, steep-sided river valleys and deep gorges along their courses
• flow on steep slopes having steep profiles
• Some of the rivers serve as boundaries, both international and
domestic administrative units
The Ethiopian Lakes
• Almost all Ethiopian lakes are result of tectonic process that took place during
Quaternary period of Cenozoic era
• Majority of lakes are located within the Rift Valley System
• Lake Tana-the largest lake in Ethiopia
• Ethiopia is also gifted with crater lakes(lakes at and around Bishoftu, Wonchi
(near Ambo), Hayk (near Dessie) and the Crater Lake on top of Mount Zikwala
• LakeAshenge (Tigray) is formed on a tectonic basin
• Other types of lakes in Ethiopia are man-made such as Lakes Koka, Fincha and
Melka Wakena, and many other lakes dammed following hydroelectric power
generation projects
• Lake Abaya is the largest of all the lakes in the system
• The southern tip of the Rift Valley forms the marshy land called the Chew Bahir-
drained by Segan and Woito
• Shala and Ziway-the shallowest and the deepest lakes in the central Ethiopian Rift
Area and depth of some of Ethiopian
Lakes
Lake Area (km2) Max. Depth(m) Lake Area (km2) Max. Depth(m)

Tana 3600 9 Abijata 205 14

Abaya 1162 13.1 Hawassa 129 10

Chamo 551 13 Ashenge 20 25

Ziway 442 8.95 Hayk 5 23

Shala 409 266 Beseka 48.5 11

Koka 205 9
Water Resources Potentials and Development in
Ethiopia
1. Hydro-electric Potential
• The exploitable potential of hydroelectric power is estimated at about 45000
megawatts
• The first hydroelectric power generation plant was installed on Akaki River
(Aba Samuel) in 1932
• Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the country’s largest dam under
construction aiming to generate 6400 megawatts
• Gilgel Gibe III hydropower project has gone operational generating 1870
megawatts
• Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric power plants constructed
on Lake Aba Samuel, Koka, Tis Abay, Awash, Melka Wakena, Sor, Fincha,
Gibe/Omo, Tana Beles and Tekeze, generating close to 4000 megawatts of
energy
• The major problem related to the use of
Ethiopian rivers for the generation of
hydroelectric power is the seasonal flow
fluctuations and impact of climate change and
variability

• The severe erosion from the highlands and

sedimentation in the reservoirs is also a critical
problem for hydroelectric power generation
2. Irrigation and Transportation
• Ethiopia’s potential of irrigation is estimated to be 5.3 million
hectares
• The Baro-Akobo and Genale Dawa river systems have large irrigation
potential compared to other basins
• Despite the untapped irrigation practice, more than 60% of the area
under irrigation so far is located in Rift Valley Drainage System
• Majority of Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transportation
• The Baro at its lower course is the only navigable river
• Comparatively, Ethiopian lakes are much suitable for transportation
than rivers
• Lake Tana and Abaya are relatively the most used for transportation
3. Fishing and Recreation
• The majority of Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish
• Currently the annual production of fish is estimated to be 31.5
thousand tons
• Currently Lake Tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000-10,000
tons per year
• Fish production from Lake Chamo is estimated at 4,500 tons per
year
• More than 60% of fish supplies are coming from Ethiopian main
Rift Valley lakes
• Some of the lakes are currently threatened by sedimentation,
invasive species (water hyacinth), over exploitation and expansion
of investments around lakes
 THE CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND
THE HORN
• Ethiopia is characterized by a wide variety of altitudinal
ranges and diverse climatic conditions
• Because of its closeness to the equator and the Indian Ocean,
the country is subjected to large temporal and spatial
variations in elements of weather and climate
• The climate of Ethiopia is therefore mainly controlled by the
seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) and associated atmospheric circulations as well as by
the complex topography of the country
Weather and Climate
• Weather is the instantaneous or current state of
the atmosphere composing temperature,
atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind speed and
direction, cloudiness and precipitation
• Climate refers the state of the atmosphere over
long time periods, decades and more. It is the
composite of daily weather conditions recorded
for long periods of time
Elements and Controls of Weather and
Climate
Elements Controls
Temperature Latitude/angle of the Sun
Precipitation and humidity Land and water
distribution
Winds and air pressure Winds and air pressure
Altitude and mountain
barriers
Ocean currents
Controls of Weather and Climate
Factors demining the climate of an area
• Latitude
• Elevation
• Nearby water
• Ocean currents
• Topography
• Vegetation and prevailing winds
• Global climate system and any changes that occur within it also
influence local climate
a. Latitude is the distance of a location from the
equator

Implications of latitudinal location of Ethiopia and the

Horn
• high average temperatures
• high daily and small annual ranges of temperature
• no significant variation in length of day and night
between summer and winter
b. Inclination of the Earth's Axis

• The earth’s rotation axis makes an angle of about 66 ½ ° with the

plane of its orbit around the sun, or about 23 ½ ° from the
perpendicular to the ecliptic plane

• This inclination determines the location of the Tropics of Cancer,

Capricorn and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles

• As the earth revolves around the sun, this inclination produces a

change in the directness of the sun's rays; which in turn causes the
directness of the sun and differences in length of day and seasons
Equinoxes and Solstices
• An equinox is the instant of time when the sun
strikes the plane of the Earth's equator

• During this passage the length of day and night

are equal

• Equinox appears twice a year

Two Major Equinoxes
1. The Vernal (spring) equinox
• The day when the point of verticality of sun’s rays crosses the equator
northwards
• During this period, the length of day and night are equal
• Vernal (spring) equinox marks the beginning of spring season
• March 21 marks the offset of the vernal equinox
2. The Autumn equinox
• Occurs when the sun crosses equator giving approximately equal length
between day and night
• It appears to happen when the visible sun moves south across the celestial
equator on 23rd of September
• It marks the beginning of Autumn season
Solstice

• is an event when the overhead sun appears

to cross northern or southern points relative
to the celestial equator resulting in unequal
length of days and nights in the
hemispheres
• Both hemispheres during this event has
either the most or least sunlight of the year
1. The summer Solstice
• on June 21st, the northern hemisphere has maximum tilt towards the sun
experiencing longest daylight of the year
• It is the astronomical first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere
• The sun is at its highest position in the noonday sky, directly above 23 ½ in the
Tropic of Cancer
2. The winter solstice
• 22nd of December is the day when the maximum southward inclination is
attained in the Southern Hemisphere
• In this event the sun travels shortest length causing longest night and shortest
daylight
• In the Northern Hemisphere, it occurs when the sun is directly over the Tropic
of Capricorn, which is located at 23 ½ ° south of the equator
c. Altitude

• Altitude is the height of location above the sea level

• Under normal conditions there is a general decrease
in temperature with increasing elevation
• The average rate at which temperature changes per
unit of altitudinal change is known as lapse rate
• The lapse rate is limited to the lower layer of the
atmosphere named as troposphere
• The normal lapse rate is 6.5°C per kilometer rise in
altitude
Types of lapse rate

1. Dry adiabatic laps rate

2. Wet Adiabatic laps rate

3. Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric

lapse late
Dry adiabatic lapse rate

• An adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which the temperature of an air

parcel changes in response to the expansion or compression process
associated with a change in altitude
• Dry adiabatic lapse rate
-The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of dry air decreases as
the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere
-The rate of heating or cooling is about 10°C for every 1000 m of
change in elevation
-This rate applies only to unsaturated air, and thus it is called the dry
adiabatic laps rate
Moist adiabatic lapse rate

• The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of saturated

air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere
• The moist adiabatic lapse rate is not a constant like the dry
adiabatic lapse rate but is dependent on parcel temperature
and pressure
• Rising and saturated or precipitating air cools at a slower rate
than air that is unsaturated
• This process is called wet adiabatic temperature change
• The rate of cooling of wet air is approximately 5◦c per 1000
meters ascend
Environmental lapse rate or Atmospheric
lapse late
• The environmental lapse rate refers to the temperature drop with increasing
altitude in the troposphere; that is the temperature of the environment at
different altitudes
• It implies no air movement
• Adiabatic cooling is associated only with ascending air, which cools by
expansion
• The actual, observed change of temperature with altitude
• Decrease in temperature upward from the earth's surface normally prevails
throughout the lower atmosphere called troposphere
• The principal exception to the rule is the cause of temperature inversions
• The rate of change is 6.5◦C/1000 meters
Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution
of Temperature and Rainfall in Ethiopia
Spatiotemporal Distribution of Temperature
Factors determining temperature of Ethiopia and the Horn

1.Altitude *
2.Latitude*
3.Humidity
4.Winds
Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution
of Temperature
• Temperature, as it is affected by altitude, decreases towards
the interior highlands
• The Bale Mountains are among highlands where lowest mean
annual temperatures are recorded
• The highest mean maximum temperature in the country is
recorded in the Afar Depression
• The major controls determining temporal distribution of
Ethiopian temperature are latitude and cloud cover
• Ethiopia’s daily temperatures are more extreme than its annual
averages
Temperature versus Altitude
Altitude (meter) Mean annual Description Local Equivalent
Temp (0C)

3,300 and above 10 or less Cool Wurch

2,300 - 3,300 10 – 15 Cool Temperate Dega

1,500 - 2,300 15 – 20 Temperate Woina Dega

500 - 1,500 20 – 25 Warm Kola

Temperate

below 500 25 and above Hot Bereha

Spatiotemporal Patterns and Distribution
of Temperature
• In Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn, temperature
shows seasonal variations
• March to June-highest temperatures
• Low temperatures from November to February
• Southern part of Ethiopia receives highest records of
temperature in autumn and spring following the
relative shift of the sun; whereas in the northern part
of the country, summer season is characterized by
higher temperature
• The temperature and the amount of energy
reaching the surface is directly related with the
directness of the sun
• Unlike other parts of Ethiopia, the southern and
southwestern highlands experience reduced
temperature
• The direction of rain bearing winds (leeward or
windward side) also determines the temperature
variations in mountainous regions
Spatiotemporal Distribution of Rainfall
• The rainfall system in Ethiopia is characterized by spatial and temporal
variabilities
• The seasonal and annual rainfall variations are results of the macro-
scale pressure systems and monsoon flows which are related to the
changes in the pressure systems
• Position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITC), pressure cells, and
Trade Winds
• Following the position of the overhead sun, the ITCZ(a low-pressure
zone) shifts north and south of the equator
• As the shift takes place, equatorial westerlies from the south and
southwest invade most parts of Ethiopia bringing moist winds
• The ITCZ shifts towards south of equator (Tropic of Capricorn) in January

• During this period, the Northeast Trade Winds carrying non-moisture-

laden dominates the region

• Afar and parts of Eritrean coastal areas experience rainfall in this period

• Following the directness of the Sun in March and September around the
equator, the ITCZ shifts towards equator

• During this time, the central highlands, southeastern highlands and

lowlands receives rainfall as the south easterlies bring moist winds
Temporal variability of rainfall
i. Summer (June, July, August)
• From mid-June to mid-September, majority of Ethiopian regions,
except lowlands in Afar and Southeast, receive rainfall during the
summer season as the sun overheads north of the equator
• High pressure cells develop on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans around
the tropic of Capricorn although the Atlantic contributes a lot, the
Indian Ocean is also source of rainfall
• During this season, Ethiopia and the Horn come under the influence
of the Equatorial Westerlies (Guinea monsoon) and Easterlies
• Hence, the Guinea monsoon and the South easterly winds are
responsible for the rain in this season
ii. Autumn (September, October and November)
• Autumn is the season of the year between
summer and winter
• The exact position of the ITCZ changes over the
course of the year, oscillating across the equator
• In autumn the ITCZ shifts towards the equator
weakening the equatorial westerlies
• During this season, the south easterlies from
Indian Ocean showers the lowlands in
southeastern part of Ethiopia
iii. Winter (December, January and February)
• In winter, the overhead sun is far south of equator
• During this season, northeasterly winds originating
from the landmass of Asia dominantly prevail
Ethiopian landmass
• However, it has no significant coverage compared to
other seasons
• The northeasterly winds crossing the Red Sea carry
very little moisture and supplies rain only to the Afar
lowlands and the Red Sea coastal areas
iv. Spring (March, April and May)
• In this season, the noonday sun is shining directly on
the equator while shifting north from south
• The shift of the ITCZ, results in longer days and more
direct solar radiation providing warmer weather for
the northern world
• In this season, the effect of the northeast trade wind
is very much reduced
• The southeasterlies from the Indian Ocean provide
rain to the highlands of Somalia, and to the central
and southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia
Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia
i. Summer rainfall region
• This region comprises almost all parts of the country, except the
southeastern and northeastern lowlands
• The region experiences most of its rain during summer (kiremt), while
some places also receive spring (Belg) rain
• The region is divided in to dry and wet summer rainfall regions
• Hence, the wet corresponds to the area having rainfall of 1,000 mm or
more
• The High altitudes and the windward side experience such rainfall amount
ii. All year-round rainfall region
• It has many rainy days than any part of the country
• It is a rainfall region in the southwestern part of the country
• The wetness of this region is particularly due to the prepotency
of moist air currents of equatorial Westerlies called the Guinea
Monsoons
• Both duration and amount of rainfall decreases as we move
from southwest to north and eastwards
• Months in summer gain highest rainfall whereas the winter
months receive the reduced amount
• The average rainfall in the region varies from 1,400 to over
2,200 mm/year
iii. Autumn and Spring rainfall regions
• The region comprises areas receiving rain following the
influence of southeasterly winds
• South eastern lowlands of Ethiopia receive rain during
autumn and spring seasons when both the north easterlies
and equatorial westerlies are weak
• The south-easterlies bring rainfall from the Indian Ocean.
About 60 percent of the rain is in autumn and 40 percent in
spring
• The average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1,000 mm
iv. Winter rainfall region
• This rainfall region receives rain from the
northeasterly winds

• During the winter season, the Red sea

escarpments and some parts of the Afar region
receive their main rain
Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
• As a result of the diversified altitude and climatic conditions, Ethiopia
possesses diverse agroclimatic zones
• These zones have traditionally been defined in terms of temperature
• This system divides the nation into five major climatic zones:
- Bereha
- Kolla
-Woina Dega
-Dega
-Wurch
Agro-ecological Zones of Ethiopia
1. The Wurch Zone
• The Wurch-zone is an area having altitude higher than 3,200
meters above sea level and mean annual temperature of less
than 10◦C.

• Mountains having typically fitting characteristics of this zone

include mountain systems of Ras Dashen, Guna, Megezez in
North Shoa, Batu, Choke, Abune Yoseph etc.
2. Dega Zone
This is a zone of highlands having relatively higher
temperature and lower altitude compared to the
wurch Zones
In Ethiopia, the Dega-zone is long inhabited and
has dense human settlement due to reliable
rainfall for agriculture and absence of vector-
borne diseases such as malaria
3. Weyna Dega Zone
• This zone has warmer temperature and moderate
rainfall
• It lies between 1500-2,300 meters above sea level
• It is the second largest zone covering more than 26%
of the landmass of Ethiopia
• The temperature and rainfall of this category is highly
suitable for majority of crops grown in Ethiopia
• Hence, the zone includes most of the agricultural land
• The Weyna Dega zone has also two growing seasons
4. Kolla Zone
• In Ethiopia, the geographic peripheries in south, southeast,
west and northeastern part are mainly in this category
• Kolla is the climate of the hot lowlands with an altitudinal
range of 500 to 1500 meters above sea level
• Average annual temperature ranges between 20◦C and 30◦C
• Although mean annual rainfall is erratic, it can be as high as
1500 mm in the wet western lowlands of Gambella
• Rainfall is highly variable from year to year
• The region is boundary between the hot arid (Bereha) and
the humid climates (Woina Dega)
Bereha Zone
• The hot arid climate of the desert lowlands
• The Bereha agro-climatic zone is largely confined to lowland areas
with altitude of lower than 500 meters
• Around Danakil depression, the elevation goes below the sea level
• Its average annual rainfall is less than 200 mm, and average annual
temperature is over 27.5◦C
• Strong wind, high temperature, low relative humidity, and little
cloud cover usually characterize Bereha
• Evapotranspiration is always in excess of rainfall
• Djibouti, majority of Somalia, and coastal areas of Eritrea are
categorized under Kolla and Bereha zones
Agro Ecological Zones of Ethiopia
Climate Change/Global Warming: Causes,
Consequences and Response Mechanisms
• Climate change refers to a change in the state of the climate that can
be identified (e.g. using statistical tests) by changes in the mean
and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an
extended period, typically decades or longer

• It refers to any change in climate over time, due to either natural

variability or human activities.
Current Trends of Climate in Ethiopia
• Ethiopian climate experiences extremes such as drought,
flood etc
• Ethiopia ranked 5th out of 184 countries in terms of its risk of
drought
• In the country, 12 extreme drought events were recorded
between 1900 and 2010
• Among the 12, seven of the drought events occurred since
1980
• The majority of these resulted in famines
• The severe drought of 2015-2016 was exacerbated by the
strongest El Nino that caused successive harvest failures and
widespread livestock deaths in some regions
Trends in Temperature Variability
• Over the last decades, Ethiopia has experienced climatic changes
• Mean annual temperature has shown 0.2°C to 0.28°C rise per decade
over the last 40-50 years
• A rise in average temperature of about 1.3°C has been observed
between 1960 and 2006
• The rise has spatial and temporal variation
• Higher rise in temperature was noted in drier areas in northeast and
southeast part of the country
• Notably the variability is higher in July-September
• The number of ‘hot days’ and ‘hot nights’ has also shown increment
• Consequently, the country’s minimum temperature has increased
with 0.37°C to 0.4°C per decade
Trends in Rainfall Variability
• Rainfall variability is increasing (and predictability is decreasing) in
many parts of the country
• In some regions, total average rainfall is showing decline
• For instance, parts of southern, southwestern and south-eastern
regions receiving Spring and Summer rainfall have shown decline by
15-20% between 1975 and 2010
• This has strong implications for crop production, which becomes clear
when assessing the change in areas that receive sufficient rain to
support crop production
Trends in Rainfall Variability
• Changes in temperature and rainfall increase the frequency and
severity of extreme events

• Major floods have been a common occurrence, leading to loss of life

and property in numerous parts of the country

• Warming has exacerbated droughts, and desertification in the

lowlands of the country is expanding
Causes of Climate Change
• The causes of climate change are generally categorized as
anthropogenic/manmade and natural causes
A. Natural Causes
Climate change has many natural causes, such as variations in the
energy budget, the position of Earth relative to Sun, the position of
continents relative to the equator, and even whether the continents are
together or apart
 Causes of Climate Change
Major natural causes
1. Earth orbital changes
• The earth is tilted at an angle of 23.5° to the perpendicular plane of its orbital path
• Changes in the tilt of the earth can lead to small but climatically important changes in the
strength of the seasons
• More tilt means warmer summers and colder winters
2. Energy Budget
• Although the Sun’s energy output appears constant, small changes over an extended period
of time can lead to climate changes
• Since the Sun was born, 4.55 billion years ago, the star has been very gradually increasing
its amount of radiation so that it is now 20% to 30% more intense than it was once
3. Volcanic eruptions
• Volcanic eruption releases large volumes of sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor,
dust, and ash into the atmosphere
• The release of large volume of gases and ash can increase planetary reflectivity causing
atmospheric cooling
 Causes of Climate Change
B. Anthropogenic Causes
• growing influence of human activities on the environment
• The warming of earth in the past 50 years is majorly driven by human
activities
• Human induced greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxide have caused much of the observed increase in Earth's
temperatures over the past 50 years
• The major gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect
-Water vapor
-Carbon dioxide (CO2)
- Methane
-Nitrous oxide
-Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Consequences of Climate Change
1. Impacts on human health
• heat related mortality and morbidity,
• greater frequency of infectious disease epidemics
following floods and storms
• substantial health effects following population
displacement to escape extreme weather events
• incidence malaria
Consequences of Climate Change
2. Impact on water resources
• Climate change is leading to melting of snow and
glaciers that increases rise in sea level, increase
drought and floods, distorts wind flow pattern,
decreases water table
• More frequent and longer droughts reduce the
amount of run-off into rivers, streams and lakes
Consequences of Climate Change
3. Impact on Agriculture
• Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns
significantly affect agricultural production
• Climate change increases physiological stress and
fodder quality and availability
Consequences of Climate Change
4. Impact on Ecosystem
• Climate change affects the success of species,
population, and community adaptation
• The rate of climatic warming may exceed the rate of
shifts in certain range species, these species could be
seriously affected or even disappear because they are
unable to resist
 Three major response mechanisms to
climate change
1. Mitigation
2. Adaptation
3. Resilience
Mitigation and its Strategies
•Mitigation measures are those actions that are
taken to reduce and control greenhouse gas
emissions changing the climate
•Reducing the flow of heat trapping
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either
by reducing sources of these gases or
enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and
store these gases(such as the oceans, forests
and soil)
Mitigation Measures
•Practice Energy efficiency
•Increase the use of renewable
energy such as solar
•Efficient means of transport
implementation: electric public
transport, bicycle, shared cars, etc.
Adaptation and its Strategies
• Adaptation is simply defined as adapting to life in a changing climate
• It involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate
Major Adaptation Strategies
• building flood defenses
• plan for heat waves and higher temperatures
• installing water-permeable pavements to better deal with floods and
storm water
• improve water storage and use are some of measures taken by cities and
towns
• landscape restoration and reforestation
• flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for natural catastrophes
• preventive and precautionary measures (evacuation plans, health issues,
etc.)
 Soils, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife
Resources of Ethiopia and The Horn
• The past geological process and varied climatic events ensued
Ethiopia to have varied soil and biological diversity
• The formation and spatial variabilities of soils in Ethiopia is largely
related to topographic and climatic factors, parent material (rocks)
and land use
• Likewise, the distribution of wildlife and natural vegetation in Ethiopia
and the Horn is controlled by many factors important among which
are climate, soil types, drainage, etc
 Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and
Conservation
• Soil is a delicate but highly varied composition of mineral particles,
organic matter and living organisms in dynamic equilibrium
• This variability reflects primarily the parent material from which the
soil was formed over very long periods of time and the environment
in which the soil has developed
• It consists of weathered mineral materials (45%), organic matter (5%),
air (20-30%) and water (20-30%)
 Ethiopian Soils: Types, Degradation and
Conservation
• It could take several thousands of years to form a single stratum of
soil
• As it is a complex mixture of several constituents, its formation is also
more complex
• The formation of a particular type of soil depends on parent material,
climate, topography, living organism and time
• Weathering disintegrates the inorganic substances (rocks) of soils
 Three types of weathering involving in soil
formation
A. Mechanical (physical) weathering
• Physical disintegration causes decrease in size without appreciably
altering composition
• Differential stresses due to heating and cooling or expansion of ice
break the rock
• Abrasion (erosion by friction) due to water containing sediment or
wind carrying debris is another type of physical weathering
 Three types of weathering involving in soil
formation
B. Biological weathering
• The process of biological weathering involves the weakening and
subsequent disintegration of rock by plants, animals and microbes
• Roots of plant can exert pressure on rock
• Although the process is physical, the pressure is exerted by a
biological process (i.e., growing roots)
• Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s
chemical composition, thus making it more susceptible to weathering
 Three types of weathering involving in soil
formation
C. Chemical weathering
• Chemical weathering involves the modification of the chemical
and mineralogical composition of the weathered material
• A number of different processes can result in chemical
weathering
• The most common chemical weathering processes are
hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction, hydration, carbonation, and
solution
Two basic properties of soils
1. Physical properties
• Soil physical properties are influenced by composition and proportion
of major soil components
• Properties such as texture, structure, porosity etc. are categorized
under physical soil properties
• These properties affect air and water movement in the soil, and thus
the soil’s ability to function
Two basic properties of soils
2. Chemical Properties
• Soil chemistry is the interaction of various chemical
constituents that takes place among soil particles and
in the water retained by soil
• Soil properties like availability of minerals, electrical
conductivity, soil pH, etc.
• Soil chemical properties affect soil biological activity
and indirectly the nutrient dynamics
Major Soil Types in Ethiopia
• Soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
• One can therefore, say that some of the soil divisions in the country
are based on the geologic structure
• However, it should be born in mind that, there are soils formed due to
long waited deposition of sediments
• FAO has identified 18 soil associations in Ethiopia at scale of
1:2,000,000. Out of the major soils, 11 soil associations cover about
87.4 percent of the land area
Classification criteria for major groups of
soils in Ethiopia
1. Environmental condition i.e. parent material,
climatic conditions, topography, the way they were
formed
2. Characteristic i.e. significant chemical and physical
properties
3. Agricultural suitability in relation to texture,
structure, topography, moisture-storage capacity, etc
4. Occurrence: general location of the soil types
Six major groups of soils in Ethiopia
1. Nitosols and Acrisols
• Nitosols develop on gently sloping ground
• Their parent materials include trap series volcanics, volcanic ash, and
even metamorphic rocks
• They are strongly weathered soils but far more productive than most
other tropical soils
• They are basically associated with highlands with high rainfall and
they were, probably, formed on forest covered areas originally
Major groups of soils in Ethiopia
1. Nitosols and Acrisols
• Due to the high rainfall, there is considerable soil leaching which
makes the nitosols to be poor in soluble minerals like potassium,
calcium etc.; and rich in non-soluble minerals like iron and aluminum
• The reddish-brown color of these soils is because of high
concentration of iron (ferric) oxides due to leaching. But they are now
widely found on cultivated areas and on mountain grasslands
• Nitosols are dominantly found in western highlands (Wellega),
southwestern highlands (Kaffa, Illuababora), Southern highlands,
Central highlands, and Eastern highlands
Acrisols
• One of the most inherently infertile soils of the
tropics, becoming degraded chemically and
organically very quickly when utilized
• Acrisols have very low resilience to degradation and
moderate sensitivity to yield decline
• In Ethiopia, it has lost most of the base nutrients and
are characterized by low productive capacity
• Acrisols are found along with nitosols mostly in some
pockets of southwestern highlands of Ethiopia where
there is high rainfall
2. Vertisols
• Vertisols are heavy clay soils with a high proportion of
swelling clays when wet, and cracks when dry
• These soils are extremely difficult to manage (hence easily
degraded), but has very high natural chemical fertility.
Vertisols mostly develop on volcanic plateau basalt, trachyte
and pyroclastic materials, sedimentary rocks, colluvial slopes
and alluvial plains
• The vertisols are also soils of highlands and moderate
climates
• In Ethiopia, they are commonly found in parts of
Northwestern, Central and Southeastern highlands
(especially in Gojjam, Shewa, Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe)
3. Lithosols, Cambisols and Regosol
• These soils are mostly found in rugged topography and steep slopes
• There is little evidence of pedogenic processes (soil forming processes)
• As a result, they are young, shallow and coarse textured and so have low
water holding capacity
• They are found in areas of low rainfall
• Most of the areas covered by these soils have limited agricultural use
• They are, in most cases, left under the natural plant cover and used for
grazing
• Found in different parts of rugged and steep slopes of Central Highlands,
on the Rift Valley Escarpments and highlands in of western Hararghe
• Regosol and Lithosols are also found in the Danakil and eastern Ogaden
4. Xerosols, Yermosols and Solanchaks
• Xerosols are soils of the deserts, have low organic content
-Extremely subjected to wind erosion and concentration of soluble
salts
• Yermosols are even drier and more problematic than Xerosols
• Solanchaks are saline soils which develop in areas of high evaporation
and capillary action
- Badly managed irrigation schemes may turn soils into solonchaks
• In Ethiopia, Xerosols are found in Ogaden and northeastern
escarpments, whereas the Yermosols and Solonchaks cover the
Ogaden and Afar plains
• The Solonchaks are majorly located in salty plains of Afar
5. Fluvisols
• Fluvisols develop on flat or nearly flat ground, on recent
alluvial deposits
• These soils are associated with fluvial (river), marine (sea)
and lacustine (lake) deposits
• These are soils formed due to deposition of eroded materials
from highlands
• The deposition takes place in depressions, lower valleys and
lowlands. Lower regions of rivers like Omo, Awash, Abay and
the plains of Akobo and Baro Rivers are home for fluvivsols
• Lakes region (main Ethiopian rift) is also characterized by
fluvisols
6. Luvisols
• Luvisols develop mainly in areas where pronounced wet and dry
seasons occur in alternation
• Where leaching is not very high, they are found in association with
nitosols
• Luvisols have good chemical nutrients and they are among the best
agricultural soils in the tropics
• They are intensively cultivated
• However, when luvisols are found on steep slopes (stony) and on flat
areas (waterlogged) they are avoided and left for grazing
• In Ethiopia, places with luvisols include Lake Tana area, parts of
Northern, Central and Eastern Highlands and Southern lowlands
Soil Degradation
• Soil degradation is defined as a change in any or all of soil status resulting in
a diminished capacity of the ecosystem to provide goods and services
• It could also be the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological
properties of soil
• It is a critical and growing global problem
• It is a major concern for at least two reasons
• First, soil degradation undermines the productive capacity of an ecosystem
• Second, it affects global climate through alterations in water and energy
balances and disruptions in cycles of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and other
elements
Major types of soil degradation
1. Physical Degradation
• the deterioration of the physical properties of soil
A. Compaction
• densification of soil is caused by the elimination or reduction of structural
pores
• Soils prone to compaction are susceptible to accelerated runoff and erosion
B. Soil erosion
• a three-phase process consisting of the detachment of individual soil
particles, transportation and deposition
• In Ethiopia, an estimated average of 42 tons per hectare of soils is eroded
annually
ii. Biological Degradation
• Reduction in soil organic matter content, decline in
biomass carbon, and decrease in activity and diversity
of soil fauna are ramifications of biological
degradation
• Because of prevailing high soil and air temperatures,
biological degradation of soil is more severe in the
tropics than in the temperate zone
• It can also be caused by indiscriminate and excessive
use of chemicals and soil pollutants
iii. Chemical Degradation
• Nutrient depletion is a major cause of chemical
degradation
• Excessive leaching in soils causes a decline in soil
pH and a reduction in base saturation
• Chemical degradation is also caused by the
buildup of some toxic chemicals and an
elemental imbalance that is injurious to plant
growth
Causes of soil degradation
• Soil degradation may result from natural and human-induced
causes
• Topographic and climatic factors such as steep slopes,
frequent floods and tornadoes, storms and high-velocity
wind, high intensity rains and drought in dry regions are
among the natural causes
• Deforestation and overexploitation of vegetation,
overgrazing, indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and lack of
soil conservation practices, and over extraction of ground
water are some anthropogenic causes of soil degradation
Two major soil erosion control mechanisms
A. Biological Control measures
• vegetative strips, plantation, and reforestation
• Biological controls prevent splash erosion, reduces the velocity of
surface runoff, increases surface roughness which reduces runoff and
increases infiltration
B. Physical control measures
• Physical measures are used to control the movement of water and
wind over the soil surface
Major types of physical erosion control
measures commonly applied in Ethiopia
•Terracing
•check dams
•Gabion
• trenches
•contour ploughing
•soil bunds etc.
Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
• Natural vegetation refers to a plant cover that
develops with little or no human interference

• It can also be seen as any original plant cover

grown in an area

• Its distribution on the surface of the earth is

uneven majorly controlled by factors such as
climate, soil types, drainage, etc
Importance of Natural Vegetation
• Plants can provide shelter, food, source of fuel,
pasture and grazing, raw material for industries,
source of timber and non-timber products

• The other uses include moderating effect on

local climate, as home of wild life, medicinal
values, minimizing soil erosion etc
The characteristics of Ethiopia's natural
vegetation
• Ethiopia's natural vegetation determined by elevation (and temperature) and
rainfall
• Temperature is mostly controlled by elevation
• Lowlands due to their low rainfall and high temperature have harsh
environment and are characterized by xeromorphic plants (plants which are
adapted to drought and high temperatures)
• Highlands (up to about 3000 m) are cooler than the lowlands and where
there is adequate moisture a variety of forests can be seen
• Plants whose growth is limited by the low temperature characterize high
altitude areas (mostly above 3000 m)
• Ethiopia possesses an estimated number of 6000 species of higher plants of
which 10% are endemic
Major Natural Vegetation Types of
Ethiopia
• Taking altitude into consideration it is possible to broadly classify the
vegetation belts of Ethiopia into the following five groups:

1. Afro-alpine and sub-afro alpine Region

2. Forest Region
3. Woodland Savannah Region
4. Steppe Region
5. Semi-desert Region
Afro-alpine and Sub-afro alpine Region
• Ethiopia has the largest extent of Afro-alpine and sub afro-
alpine habitats in Africa
• This vegetation type, also known as high mountain
vegetation is similar to the Alpine vegetation in temperate
regions
• These ecosystems are found on mountains having an
elevation ranging between 3,200 and 4,620 meters above
sea level
• The Afro-alpine habitat covers nearly 1.3% of the total
landmass of Ethiopia
• The Afro-alpine region is found at very high altitudes (4,000 –
4,620 m)
• Like any other landform in Ethiopian, the climate of Afro-
alpine ecosystems is controlled by latitude and altitude
• The annual precipitation which ranges between 800 and
1,500 mm, is mostly in the form of sleet or snow
• Temperature records of 0°C and below are widely
experienced in these ecosystems
• Soils in this ecosystem are mostly shallow and eroded
• The Bale and Semein mountains are typical examples of afro-
alpine vegetations
• Compared to the Afro-alpine, the Sub-afro-alpine region is
found at a lower elevation, roughly between 3,300 and 4,000
meters
• As a result, the plants in this region are adapted to
somewhat less extreme environment than the Afro-alpine
• Vegetation in the Afro-alpine region consists of tussock
grasslands, scrub, scattered mosses and lichens while the
Sub-afro alpine region is dominated by woodland, often
degraded to scrub stages and also wet grasslands
• Lobelia rhynchopetalum (giberra) and Erica arborea (Asta)
are some of the dominant species in the Afro-alpine and
Sub-afro alpine regions respectively
 Forest Region
• Forest is a complex ecosystem consisting predominantly of trees that
shield earth and support numerous life forms
• Not all forests are similar in terms of species composition, structure
and physiognomy
• In any geographical region, environmental factors such as climate, soil
types, topography and elevation determine the types of forests
• In Ethiopia, forests are found at different elevations, 450 to 3,500m in
humid parts and 2,300 to 3,300 m in most arid parts
• Forests are characterized by variation in mean annual rainfall that
range between 200 and 2,200mm
• Wide variations in rainfall and altitude result in two broad
classification of forests:
• Highlands and Lowland forests
• Highland forests include Hagenia Abyssinia (Kosso), Juniper procera
(tid), Arundinaria Alpina(kerkha), Podocarpus falcatus (zigba),
Aningeria adolfi-friedericii (keraro) and Olea africana (Weyra) forests;
while Baphia are classified as lowland forests
• There are also Gallery (Riverine) Forests(stretch along the banks of
the lower courses of rivers)
• Riverine forests are classified as lowland forests and are found in
some places such as the banks of Awash, Wabishebelle, Ghenale etc.
Dominant species include Ficus sur (sholla) and different kinds of
acacia trees
Woodland Savannah Region
• Like the forests, the woodland savannahs are also found in areas of
wide altitudinal ranges (250 to 2,300 m)
• Although the mean annual rainfall ranges between 200 and 1,400
mm, the large part of this region is found at a lower elevation and in a
drier environment
• The plants in the woodland savannah are known for their
xeromorphic characteristics like shading of leaves during the dry
season
• Vegetation types with intermediate characteristics between
savannahs and woodlands are shrublands and bushlands
• Woodland savannah region can be broadly classified into
three divisions:
• Juniper procera (tid) is dominant species for both the
Junipers Forests and Junipers Woodlands
• The difference is in height: 3 - 45 meters tall in the forests
and 10 -15 meters in the woodlands
• Acacia woodlands are dominated by both trees and shrubs,
which belong to the same genus 'Acacia‘,e.g.,Acacia
etbaica(grar),Acacia mellifera (Konter)
• Mixed deciduous woodlands: As the name implies, most of
the trees in mixed deciduous woodlands shed their leaves
during the dry season
Woodland Savanna Region
 Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
• These are regions in the arid and semiarid parts of the country where
the temperature is very high and the rainfall very low
• Both are found at low elevations, the steppe at elevations of 100 to
1,400 m above sea level and the semi-deserts at 130 meters below
sea level to 600 meters above sea level
• The steppe gets a mean annual rainfall of 100 to 550 mm as
compared to 50 to 300 mm for the semi desert areas
• Growing period lasts up to 2 months for the steppe and a maximum
of one month for the semi-deserts
• Even though there is a variation in the degree of alkalinity and
salinity; soils in both regions are generally alkaline and saline
Steppe and Semi Desert Regions
• In these regions xerophytic (i.e. drought-resisting plants) are
the dominant vegetations
• Xerophytic plants such as short shrubs, scattered tufts of
grass species and a variety of acacias are some of the
examples
• Where there are moist soils, rich vegetation of acacia and
palm trees may be observed
• Trees are normally restricted to fringes along watercourses
Natural vegetation Degradation
• Over the past century, a rapid growth of the already dense
Ethiopian population has led to overexploitation of the land
• In areas with settled agriculture, new land has been cleared
at the expense of forests
• Ethiopia's forest resources have been disappearing at an
alarming rate
• A century ago, forests covered about 40 percent of the total
land area
• For the last few decades, forests have been cleared for
different reasons
Major causes for the gradual
disappearance of the natural vegetation in
Ethiopia
• Clearing of forests for cultivation
• Timber exploitation practices
• Charcoal burning and cutting for fuel
• Extensions of coffee and tea production areas
• Overgrazing
• Expansion of settlements both rural and urban, and
clearing for construction
Natural Vegetation Conservation
• Conservation of biodiversity is protection and
management of biodiversity so as to maintain at
least its current status and derive sustainable
benefits for the present and future generation
• There is an urgent need of conservation of the
ever-degrading biodiversity
Three main approaches of biodiversity
conservation
• Protection: through designation and management of some form of
protected area
• Protected areas include sanctuaries, national parks, and community
conservation areas
• Sustainable forest management: involving sustainable harvesting of
forest products to provide a source of financial income
• Restoration or rehabilitation: is the process of assisting the recovery
of a forest ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed
• This may involve the reestablishment of the characteristics of a forest
ecosystem, such as composition, structure, and function, which were
prevalent before its degradation
 Wild Life/wild animals

Guereza (Colobus guereza)

Wild Life/wild animals in Ethiopia
• Ethiopia is one of the few countries in the world, which possess
unique and characteristic fauna with a high level of endemicity
• Existence of wide range of ecosystems endowed Ethiopia with great
varieties of habitats contributing for the occurrence of high faunal
diversity
• Ethiopia has about 860 avian species (16 endemic species and two
endemic genera), 279 species of mammals (31 endemic species and
six endemic genera), 201 species of reptiles (14 endemic species), 23
species of amphibians (23 endemic species), and 150 freshwater fish
(6 endemic species)
Ethiopia's Endemic Birds
Ethiopia's Endemic Birds
Ethiopia's Endemic Birds
Ethiopia's Endemic Birds
Ethiopia's Endemic Birds
Ethiopia's Endemic Birds
Wild Life/wild animals…
• A total of 279 mammalian species of which 31 are endemic are known
to occur in Ethiopia including those that require urgent conservation
action i.e. Walia Ibex (Capra walie), Gelada Baboon (Theropithecus
gelada), Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), Ethiopian Wolf (Canis
simensis), Starck’s Hare (Lepus starcki)
• The main wild life concentrations in the country occur in the southern
and western parts
Walia Ibex MountainNyala
Semien Fox
Gelada Baboon
Starck's Hare
Wild Life/wild animals…
• The wild animals in Ethiopia can be classified into five major groups:
1. Common wild animals (those animals that are found in many parts
of the country (e.g. hyenas, jackals)
2. Game (lowland) animal, (which include many herbivores like
giraffes, wild asses, zebras etc. and carnivores like lions, leopards,
and cheetahs)
3. Tree animals or arboreals (which include monkeys, baboons)
4. A variety of birds in the Rift Valley lakes
5. Rare animals (gelada baboon and Semien fox) scattered in
highlands; walia- ibex in the Semien Massifs, Nyala in the Arsi-Bale
massifs)
 Wildlife Conservation

• Wildlife plays an important role in several ways

• The importance of wildlife can be categorized as:
-ecological importance
-economic importance
-investigatory importance
-conservation of biological diversities etc
• Wild animals can be used for:

-scientific and educational researches (valuable

information for medical purposes and
environmental studies)
-physical and mental recreation (aesthetic value)
-promotion of tourism (economic value)
-its potential for domestication
-maintaining ecological balance
National parks, sanctuaries, community conservation
areas, botanical gardens, wildlife reserves
In Ethiopia there are:
• 21 major national parks
• 2 major wildlife sanctuaries
• 3 wildlife reserves
• 6 community conservation areas
• 2 wildlife rescue centres
• 22 controlled hunting areas
• 2 botanical gardens, and 3 biosphere reserves
Spatial distribution of National Parks
National Parks of Ethiopia
 National parks & their wild animals
• Abiyatta-Shalla lakes National Park is predominantly bird sanctuary
• Important bird species include the flamingos and pelicans
• Omo, Mago, and Gambela National Parks have hippopotamus and
crocodiles in rivers and lakes
• Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks have rare animals like
Walia ibex, Semien fox, gelada baboon and Nyala
Challenges of Wildlife Conservation in Ethiopia
• Limited awareness on the importance of wild life
• Expansion of human settlement in protected areas
• Conflict over resource
• Overgrazing (fodder and wood)
• Illegal wildlife trade
• Excessive hunting
• Tourism and recreational pressure
• Mining and construction material extraction
• Forest fire
Population of Ethiopia and The Horn

•Population numbers, dynamics,

densities, characteristics and qualities
vary in space
•These variations can be studied at
different levels: district, provincial,
regional, national, continental and
global
Population Data: Uses and Sources
• Regular and reliable population data are vital for effective
socioeconomic development planning and administration
• Demographic data are crucial to administrators,
businessmen, researchers, academicians and planners
• The population of a country is an agent as well as a
beneficiary of any planned socio-economic development
undertaken
• Therefore, it becomes inescapable to have population
information as the demography influences production,
distribution, consumption, defense and administrative
services at any administrative or natural unit considered
Sources of obtaining population data
A. Census
B. Sample survey
C. Vital registration
A. Census
• A census could be defined as the total process of collecting,
compiling and publishing demographic, economic and social data
pertaining at a specified time (s) to all persons in a defined territory
• Major characteristics of a census
• Universality: inclusion of all persons in a given area during the count
• Periodicity: census undertaking at regular time intervals with
reference to a defined point of time usually 10 years and 5 years
• Simultaneity: undertaking census in a very limited time duration
called the census day/night
 Procedures for collecting census data
• Dejure and defacto approaches

• Dejure approach: it involves counting people according to their

usual place of residence (where he/she lives most of the time)

• Defacto approach: Under this approach each individual is recorded

at the place where he/she was found at the time of the census
B. Sample Survey
B. Sample Survey
• This is a method in which a defined population/sample/ is selected with
the view that information acquired would represent the entire population

• This method is advantageous over census as costs can be greatly

reduced; and it is simple to administer and taken much faster

• However, sample surveys have the inherent weaknesses related to

sampling errors and inadequate coverage
C. Vital Registration
• Vital registration is a system of continuous,
permanent, compulsory and legal
recording of the occurrence and the
characteristics of vital events like births,
deaths, marriages, divorces, and adoptions
• Vital registration data tend to be more
precise than that of census/sample survey
and the system provides time series data
Causes of Inaccurate Population Data
• poor and inadequately financed methods of collection

• poorly trained enumerator

• suspicion and ignorance of censuses and false statements specially of age and
income

• constant changes in administrations

• omission of more inaccessible areas

• wide difference in connotation of terms like language, ethnicity, and occupation

 Population Dynamics: Fertility, Mortality
and Migration
• The population of any particular region (country)
grows/declines as a result of the combined effect of the three
demographic variables:
-fertility
-mortality
-migration
In Ethiopia, fertility and mortality are the two principal
determinants of population growth as international migration
is insignificant
• Ethiopia is endowed with a large and fast-growing population ranking 2nd in
Africa after Nigeria

-first ever census /1984, the population of Ethiopia was 42.2 million
-second census/1994, total population grew to 53.5 million
-third census/2007,the country’s population reached about 73.8 million
- an estimated 2019 population of 112 million, which ranks 12th in the world,
and the current growth rate is about 2.6%

• The largest part of the population (80%) is rural based

• Ethiopia has a youthful population where about 65 percent of the population is
below 24 years of age
Demographic Measurements
Basic Demographic Measurements
• Crude Birth Rate
• General Fertility Rate(GFR)
• Total Fertility Rate (T.F.R.)
• Crude Death Rate
• Infant Mortality/IMR
• Maternal Mortality Rate/MMR
• Life Expectancy at birth
• Natural Rate of Increase
Crude Birth Rate

• Crude Birth Rate refers to the number of live births per 1000
population
General Fertility Rate(GFR)
• The total number of live births per women of reproductive age
• GFR is a relatively specific measure of fertility as it specifically
relates births to women in the reproductive age
• Estimate the average number of children that a woman would have
over her childbearing years (i.e. age 15-49), based on current birth
trends
 General Fertility Rate

• General Fertility Rate addresses the crude nature of the CBR by focusing on
that section of the population at risk of having births – women aged 15-49
• It is constructed as follows:

• It can easily be constructed from vital registration, census or survey data and
does not rely on exact ages (except at beginning and end of age range)
• This measure is a potentially useful and reasonably accurate measure of
fertility because the numerator and denominator are focused and well
specified and the denominator is truly those at risk of producing the
numerator
 Total Fertility Rate (T.F.R.)
• The average number of children that a woman would have at the end of her
reproductive period if the current age specific fertility rate remains
unchanged.
•
Total Fertility Rate (T.F.R.)
Crude Death Rate
• The number of deaths per one thousand population in a year
 Infant Mortality/IMR
• the total number of deaths of infants per one thousand live Birth
 Maternal Mortality Rate/MMR

• death of mothers in connection from pregnancy and birth

complications per hundred thousand live birth
 Life Expectancy at birth

• The average number of years that a newly born

baby is expected to live

• It is used as a summary measure of the mortality

experience of the whole population
Natural Rate of Increase

•the difference between crude

birth rate and crude death rate
expressed in percentage
NRI= (C.B.R. - C.D.R.)
 Levels and trends in Fertility and Mortality rates in
Ethiopia
• Birth and death rates show significant spatiotemporal variation
• Urban areas have lower birth and death rates compared to rural areas
implying that living and health conditions are better and, perhaps, family
planning programme is gaining ground
• Women in rural areas have an average of 5.2 children, compared to 2.3
children among women in urban areas
• Looking at TFR by region, in 2016 fertility was the lowest in Addis Ababa (1.8
children per woman) followed by Dire Dawa (3.1), Gambella (3.5), and Amhara
(3.7); while regions that have TFR rates more than the national average are
Somali (7.2), Afar (5.5), Oromia (5.4), and Tigray (4.7)
• Total fertility rate (TFR) declined from 7.52 in 1984 to 6.74 in 1994, and
currently, women in Ethiopia have an average of 4.6 children
Levels and trends in Fertility and Mortality rates…

• Mortality rates also show considerable variation by regions

• Accordingly, lower than national average infant mortality rate was
recorded in Addis Ababa followed by Somali and Gambella; while
higher IMR was recorded in Benishangul, followed by SNNPR and
Tigray
 Levels and trends in Fertility and Mortality rates…
• Life expectancy at birth in Ethiopia increased from about
36.7 years in the 1960s to 62.6 years in 2016
• Female life expectancy (65.4 years) is about four years
higher than male life expectancy (61.2 years)
• Life expectancy at birth is greater for urban areas than for
rural areas.
• It exceeds the national average in Addis Ababa; while the
lowest is in Benishangul- Gumuz (47 years) followed by
SNNPR (49 years)
• As opposed to declining death rates, birth rates have
remained high due to:
• Little family planning practices and lack of population
education
• Lower status of women
• Early marriage, particularly of females
• Parents consideration of children as assets, though little
obliged for their education, health
• The relatively high infant and child mortality rates, that
trigger couples to have more births to compensate for the
loses
• Perhaps religious influences
Consequences of rapid population growth under conditions
of slowly growing economy
• low per capita GNP
• increased unemployment and under-employment
• mounting social ills such as destitution, begging, theft, prostitution
• continuous inflation that erodes purchasing power of the currency
• shortage of cultivated land and food shortages
• overcrowding of infrastructural and social facilities; housing
problems and increase in urban slums and squatter settlements
• Environmental problems such as deforestation, soil erosion, loss of
biodiversity and pollution
Migration in Ethiopia and the Horn

• Migration is considered as a form of

geographic mobility involving a permanent
or semi-permanent change of residence
between clearly defined geographic units
 Implications of Migration
• Migration yields an increased level of urbanization
• It enhances rural-urban linkages in creating an integrated economy
• It influences spatial population distribution
• Migration negatively influences human fertility and mortality patterns and
levels; and affects age and sex composition of the population
• It is a means of achieving economic efficiency
• It can also be a cause and consequence of inequality and unequal development
• It is regarded as a cause and consequence of diversity; and a mechanism of
spreading cultures
• It is a necessary condition for the creation and strengthening of a sense of
nationhood and national unity
• It creates a creative and open society to new ideas than a homogenous group
of people
 Internal Migration in Ethiopia
• Ethiopia is an ancient original abode of human migration before the various
parts of the world are occupied
• Population movement in Ethiopia accelerated in the early twenty century with
the rise in urban centers as well as the Italian occupation
• However, voluntary and individual rural out migration during the Derg
Regime was low for the following reasons:
-The 1976/77 ‘land to the tiller’ granted land to the rural landless farmers,
which in turn reduced their motivation for out migration
-Establishment of urban dwellers association and rural peasant
associations/PA that demanded a person to be either a member of an
urban kebele or PA that did not encourage rural-urban or urban-rural
migration
Internal Migration…
-The 1975 urban land nationalization that dispossessed landlords’
rights to own more than one house that further led to a chronic
shortage of urban housing which in turn discouraged migration
-The high level of urban unemployment and underemployment coupled
with declining real incomes and growing poverty was a disincentive for
potential migrants
-The Derge was also taking away whoever is around in the city as
soldiers to the warfront that kept the youth from moving to the urban
areas
Internal Migration…
• During the current regime, the ethnic politics in the country and
associated administrative barriers are said to discourage inter-regional
migration and sound spatial distribution of the rural population
• The incumbent government’s policy that demands continued residence
in one’s rural kebele/PA as a condition for claiming access to land also
discourages the movement of rural population out of agriculture
• Another restriction to distant migration out of rural areas is the high
cost of migration relative to expected employment opportunity and
return
Internal Migration…
• However, landlessness of emerging rural youth; drought
and rainfall unreliability in the highlands; and land
degradation and the resultant diminished carrying capacity
of the land could be important push factors in the out
migration of people out of their rural villages
• Internal migration in Ethiopia is, therefore, among the
highest in Africa
• According to the 2007 Census result, the country has a
relatively high level of internal migration where out of the
total population of the country, 16.6 percent is labeled as
migrant population
International migration
• International migration in Ethiopia accelerated after
the 1974 revolution where many refugees were
attempting to escape political conflict, persecution
and famine
• Attempt of political centralization and oppression;
the independence struggle of Eritrea from 1961-1991
that led to violent clashes in the North; and the period
of Red Terror between 1976-79 generated massive
emigration from Ethiopia
International migration
• Today, Ethiopia could be considered as one of the countries
that has a large number of emigrants overseas

• Ethiopia’s diaspora, estimated to be about four million, is

also considered one of the largest of all African countries

• Large numbers of Ethiopian migrants are found in the Middle

East, USA, Canada, Europe and African countries such as
Sudan, Kenya, South Africa and Botswana
 Causes of cross-border migration
• Lack of employment and livelihood opportunities, and negative attitudes
attached with low paying and informal job and poor work ethics amongst the
youth

• Rural underemployment and lack of resources

• Unfavorable political context and insecurity, civil war and political turmoil

• Ethiopia’s location in the fragile region of the Horn of Africa and its long
boundary that extends over 5,328 km which makes border management difficult

• Existence of large number of local brokers with networks extending to countries

of destination
 Causes of cross-border migration
• Misinformation and false promises by brokers/traffickers;
success stories of pioneering migrants; family and peer
pressure

• Emergence of ‘culture of migration’ and migration networks

• Demand-side factors of migration (shortage of labour in low-

paying, informal, and hazardous jobs, such as domestic work,
construction, agriculture in destination countries)
 Causes of cross-border migration
• Ethiopia is a country of origin, transit and destination for international
migration

• Ethiopia appears to be a hub on three land routes:

1. From the Horn of Africa via Sudan, Chad, Egypt and Libya to the
Mediterranean Sea towards Europe
2. Through Somalia and Djibouti to Yemen across the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea
towards the Middle East
3. The Southern irregular route that is an overland route Kenya -Tanzania
towards to South Africa.
Causes of cross-border migration
• International Labour Organization/ILO/ in 2016 identified the following
migration source areas of Ethiopia with high and growing incidence of
emigration:
a. Dessie (North and South Wollo) area: it includes Kemise, Bati, Kalu
(Kombolcha), Dessie and its surroundings, Tehuledere (Haiq, Girana, Bistima,
Bakaksa, Worebabo), Mersa, and Woldia

b. Shashemene (Western Arsi and Bale) area: it includes Shashemene-

Zuria, Kofele, Kore, and Assassa

c. Jimma (Western Ethiopia) area: it includes Kaffa, Wolega and

Iluababora, and more specifically Mana, Kerisa, Dedo, Agaro, Setema,
Sigmo, and Gomma areas
Causes of cross-border migration

d. Mekelle/Tigray area: specific localities include

Alamata, Kobo, Raya, Erob, Edagahamus, Gulomehadi,
Etsebi, and Weneberta

• Other prominent emigration source areas include

(Assela-Zuria, Adama-Zuria, Ambo, Fitche, Chancho,
and Western Hararghe (Hirna, Gelemso); Shewa Robit,
Debre Birhan, and Debre Tabor)
Causes of cross-border migration

• As a major destination country, Ethiopia hosts the second largest

number of refugees in Africa

• According to UNHCR 2019, refugee and asylum seeker

population(neighboring countries of South Sudan, Somalia, Eritrea
and Sudan) in Ethiopia was about one million.
 Age and Sex Structure of Ethiopian Population

• Age groups 0-14, 15-64 and 65 and above are known as young age,
working age and old age, respectively
• Our young age population is very large, about half of the population,
while the old age population is very small
• Because of the predominance of young age population, the median age of
the population is about 17 years
• The high percentage for the young age group is the result of high birth
rate and natural increase, while the small percentage of the old age
group is the reflection of high mortality rate, which results in low life
expectancy
 Age Dependency Ratio (A.D.R.)
• Age Dependency Ratio (A.D.R.) can roughly be used to show the magnitude of
dependency. It is expressed as:
Youth dependency ratio
• Youth dependency ratio and old age index for Ethiopia's population in
2007 were about 93 and 6 respectively

• This means that for every 100 persons in the working age there were
about 93 young dependents and 6 old persons of 65+
Population pyramid of Ethiopia, 2017
Population pyramid of Ethiopia, 2017
• In general, population pyramids of developing
countries like Ethiopia have very broad bases
showing the preponderance of young age
population, and become thinner and thinner
upwards as age advances
The age distribution of the population of
Ethiopia
•The age distribution of the
population of Ethiopia shows that
the country has a youthful
population resulting in heavy
youth dependency
 Implications of heavy youth dependency on socioeconomic development

• Imposition of heavy burden on the working population

• Allocation of most of the household budget to food and other household
needs with little/nothing left for saving; which then affects investment
• Diversion of limited resources on social services - building of schools and
hospitals and purchase of medicines, etc. which could have been geared to
directly productive investment
 Sex Structure
• Sex structure refers to the ratio of male population to female population at
different age groups. It is usually expressed as:

Sex ratios are generally lower for urban areas, and higher for rural
areas primarily due to larger female in-migration to urban areas
 Sex Structure
• Sex composition of the population also shows some variation by region
• In Afar, Somali and Gambella, the number of males exceeds that of females,
while in Addis Ababa the number of females is considerably higher than the
number of males
• Sex ratios also vary with age
• At birth and young ages males tend to be greater in number, but they
become increasingly less as age increases
• Hence, sex ratios are high in young age groups and low in adult and old age
groups
• Greater male births account for greater number of males and high sex ratio
in young ages, but because mortality of male children is greater, the gap
narrows down and the sex ratios decline to fall below 100 in twenties and
thirties
Population Distribution in Ethiopia
Measures of Population Distribution
Population Density
• Population density refers to the number of people per unit area
Ways of expressing population density
A. Crude Density
Crude Density is found by dividing total population to total area
• This kind of density is called crude because it does not show variations in
population distribution within a given area
• In 1990 crude density for Ethiopia was 40.74 people/km2 and this has
increased to 52 people /km2 in 1998; and it amounted to more than 100
currently.
Population Density…

• There is considerable variations in population density among the

administrative regions of the country.
• Excluding the urban based administrative regions, Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) region is the administrative area
with the largest population density (173 people/km2 ) followed by
Amhara region
• Gambella (13 people/km2), Somali, Afar and Benishangul-Gumuz
are regions with low densities of population
• Crude population density conceals much of the variations within
regions
Population Density…

• The variation in crude density could be more pronounced if we

consider subordinate administrative units in the hierarchy
• Some of the zones with very high densities are Gedeo, Sidama,
Kambata, Guraghe, Wolayta and Hadiya; where densities exceed 300
persons per sq.km2
• On the other hand, peripheral zones such as Kamashi, and Metekel
have population densities of less than 20 persons/km2
Population Density…

• Likewise, if population densities of lower administrative units are

considered the variations could still be greater
• Wanago, Damot Gale, Aleta Wendo, Yirga Chefe, Dara, Kacha Bira,
Angacha, Sodo Zuria, Shebedino and Kedida Gamela have crude
densities of exceeding 500 people/km2; while Weredas with
extremely low densities include Guba of less than 10 people/km2)
include Gog, Vaso, Dolo Bay, and Liben

• Therefore, it could be generalized that "the lower the administrative

unit considered, the greater the variations in population density "
Physiological Density
• Physiological density is a ratio between total population and arable part
of a country

• Ethiopia's physiological density (for 1998) is 61.8 people/km2

• Arable part of Ethiopia, which is used as a denominator here is 969,680

km2.
• Compared to Physiological densities of countries like Japan (1,732
people/km2), Egypt (1,575 people/km2) and Netherlands (1,220
people/km2), Ethiopia's physiological density is very low
Agricultural Density
• This is a kind of density, which takes only agricultural population as a
numerator and cultivated land as a denominator

• It is also called rural density since in most developing countries there is

not a significant difference between rural and agricultural population

• This density measure is more meaningful than both crude and

physiological density measures as it gives a better indication of the
pressure of population on land resources
Agricultural Density
• Rural population per square kilometer of cropland is the highest for Somali
Afar and Gambella
• The large ratio is due to the smaller proportion of land that is appropriate for
agriculture relative to the large landmass and small population
• It is also highly likely that through the proper utilization of the land for example
by using irrigation in Somali and Afar and investment in Gambella regions, the
agricultural density would decline in the years ahead
• SNNP region also has a high ratio compared to the national average owing to
the high population relative to their agricultural land
• The smallest agricultural density lies in Benishangul (3.8), Amahra (5),
Oromia (5.6) and Tigray (5.9)
Agricultural Density
• The two factors that explain variations in agricultural density are the
proportion of cultivated land and urban population of the regions

• Other things being equal, agricultural density tends to be higher

where both the percentage of cultivated land and the percentage of
urban population are low
 Factors Affecting Population Distribution
in Ethiopia
1. Physical Factors

• Climate(mainly rainfall and temperature)

• Soil
• Vegetation
Also
• drainage
• slope
 Factors Affecting Population Distribution
in Ethiopia
2. Human Factors

• The historical pattern of population movement

• Types of economic activities

The Historical Pattern of Population
Movement
• After the decline of the Axumite Empire, there was southward
movement of the Tigre, Amhara, Agew and Guraghe populations
starting from the 7th century

• There was also large-scale northward movement of the Oromos during

the 16th and 17th centuries

• The two waves of population movements, one from the north, and the
other from the south, offer a significant explanation of denser
population distribution in and around the central highlands
Economic Activities
• Types of productive activities strongly influence the carrying capacity
of land; and the carrying capacity in turn influences the number of
people that can inhabit an area

• The arid and semi-arid lowlands of Ethiopia that are inhabited by

pastoralists and semi-pastoralists are sparsely settled

• Compared to areas of pastoral herding, cultivated lands have greater

carrying capacity thereby supporting higher population densities
• The type of crop cultivated could also result in varying
densities

• For instance, the northern and north central areas of

Ethiopia with cereals as the main crops have relatively low
yield per unit area; and hence they have relatively low
carrying capacity and moderate density

• On the contrary, the enset and coffee regions of Ethiopia

have greater yield per unit area that gave rise to the very
high density of population in some South-central Zones and
weredas
• The development of commercial farms in some parts
of Ethiopia like the Awash valley is also a significant
factor in causing population movements and changes
in the population concentration

• Likewise, urban and industrial growths as well as

transportation routes can be considered as some of
the important elements in bringing about population
re-distribution over time and explaining density
variation
Socio-cultural Aspects of Ethiopian
Population: Education, Health and
Languages
Education
• High level of education correlates with higher incomes, better health, longer
life span, and lower mortality
• Hence, human capital development is a cause and consequence of development.
• Education is also a human right
• The total number of primary schools in Ethiopia was 34,867 in 2016
• The number of secondary schools in both urban and rural areas in 2016 was
3156
• The number of public universities has reached 45 today from only 2 in the early
1990s
Health
• The majority of ill health in Ethiopia is related to potentially
preventable, communicable diseases and nutritional disorders
Causes of the poor health status of the population

1. Lack of access to clean water: rivers and lakes remain the most
important sources of water particularly for people in rural areas
although such waters are largely unsafe
2. Lack of adequate nutrition: Malnutrition still remains high as the
country has not attained food security or due to poor knowledge
about nutritional requirements and dietary habits
3. Disease related to beliefs, behaviors and traditional practices
which include circumcision, early marriage, and low value of girls
and children
4. Lack of health services: The health care infrastructure of the
country had suffered from under funding; and health service
coverage is less than 50% of the population
 Major Killer Diseases
The major killer diseases accounting for about ¾ of all deaths
include
• Prenatal-maternal conditions
• Acute respiratory infection
• Malaria
• Nutritional deficiency for children under 5 years
• Diarrhea
• AIDS
• Tuberculosis
The current health workforce consists of

• 0.04 doctors per population of 1000

• 0.43 nurses per population of 1000
• 0.05 midwives per population of 1000
• One doctor for 26,943 people
• One nurse for 2,311 people
• One midwife for 21,810 people
 Languages Families and Languages of Ethiopia

• Ethiopia is a country where about 80 languages are spoken

• According to the 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia,
Afan Oromo and Amharic were the major mother tounges in the
country accounting 33.8% and 29.3% respectively
• Somaligna (6.2%), Tigrigna (5.9%), Sidamigna (4.0%), Wolaytigna
(2.2%), Guragigna (2%), Afarigna (1.7%), Hadyiyagna (1.7%), and
Gamogna (1.5%) do have significant number of speakers
• The Ethiopian languages belong to two Super Families: Afro-Asiatic
and Nilo-Saharan
• Most Ethiopian languages belong to the Afro-Asiatic Super Family
Afro-Asiatic
• The Afro-Asiatic Super Family, is divided into three families:

1. Semitic

2. Cushitic

3. Omotic
Cushitic
• The Cushitic languages are predominantly spoken in central, southern,
eastern and northeastern parts of Ethiopia mainly in Afar, Oromia and
Somali Regional States

• It has the largest number of speakers and the widest spatial coverage

• This family of languages consists of many individual languages such as

Oromigna, Somaligna, Sidamigna, Afarigna, Kembatigna, Hadiyigna,
Alabigna, Gedeogna, and others
Semetic
• The Semitic languages are spoken in northern, central and eastern
parts of Ethiopia particularly in the regional states of Tigray,
Amhara, Harari and northern Southern Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples' Regional State

• Some of the Semitic Languages include Amarigna, Tigrigna,

Guragigna, Siltigna, Aderigna, and Argobigna
Omotic
• The Omotic languages are predominantly spoken in the south–
central and south-western parts of Ethiopia mainly between the
Lakes of southern Rift Valley and the Omo River
• The languages, which make up this family, are numerous although
they are not as widely spread as the Cushitic and Omotic
• Wolaitigna, Gamogna, Kullogna, Kefigna, and Kontigna are some of
the languages in this family spoken by millions and many thousands of
people
NiloSaharan
• The Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken in the western
lowlands of Ethiopia along the border with Sudan, in
Gambella and Benishangul Gumuz Regional States
• These Languages are spoken by small numbers of people
often less than 500,000 people
• The individual languages of Nilo-Saharan Super Family
include Kunamigna, Bejigna, Gumuzigna, Maogna,
Kewamigna, Nuerigna, Annukigna, and others
Settlement Types and Patterns
• Settlements are divided into two, namely, rural and urban on the
bases of the dominant economic activity, population densities and
availability of socioeconomic and infrastructural facilities

• Towns or urban centers have non-agricultural activities as dominant,

while rural areas are almost totally agricultural

• Population densities are generally very high in urban area compared

to densities in rural areas
Rural Settlement
• Rural settlements can be temporary or permanent depending on
whether there is frequent change in the site of the settlements
Temporary / Mobile Settlements
• The lowlands in most parts of the Rift Valley and peripheral areas,
being generally hot and dry, are characterized by pastoral herding
and mobile settlements
• The settlements are mobile because pastoralists have always been
searching for new sites for water and pasture for their livestock
• The major problem of mobile settlements is that of providing social
services like clean water, schools, hospitals, electricity etc to the
people
Permanent Settlements
• Settlements are considered as permanent if
there are no frequent changes in their locations
• Permanent settlements are of two types
-scattered (also called diffused or dispersed)
-grouped/ clustered or nucleated
Urban Settlements and Urbanization in
Ethiopia
• Urbanization refers to the increase in the percentage of the
population living in urban centers
• Urbanization is crucial to sustain the pace of economic development
and improve the quality of life for both urban and rural populations
Urban Settlements and Urbanization in
Ethiopia
• Linkage between urban and rural areas could foster
efficiency of value chains in agro-industry, improve
agricultural productivity, promote service expansion and
create sufficient industrial jobs in urban centers to absorb
the perpetual influx of population from rural areas
• However, if the rapid urbanization is not properly managed,
it is presumed to bring with it a number of development
challenges such as unemployment, housing shortages and
informal settlements, infrastructural and service shortages,
poverty and social distress
Major criteria used to classify settlements
as urban in Ethiopia
1. Minimum of 2,000 people
2. Two-thirds of the population engaged in non-
agricultural activities
3. Chartered municipality
4. The presence of social services and amenities
An overview of the History of
Urbanization in Ethiopia
•Oldest and prominent urban
centers
-Axum
-Lalibela
-Gondar
 Factors contributing for Ethiopia’s low level of urbanization

• The self-sufficiency of agriculture which reinforced rural peasant life

• Low level of industrialization, low level structural transformation and
economic development
• The morphology of the country that hindered transportation and
communication
• The continual warfare for centuries between kingdoms in to which the
country is divided; and the frequent changes of the royal residence
• Lack of employment, and housing shortage in urban areas that
discourage in migration
• Political instability, ethnic conflict and social unrest during the late
1970s and 1980s
Drivers of and Opportunities for more
Urbanization in Ethiopia
• The urban population is growing at about 5% a year, primarily driven
by migration to urban areas

• The proportion of the urban population of Ethiopia in 2015 (20%) is

projected to mount to 37% by 2035
Drivers of urbanization
• The establishment of Addis Ababa as a centre of expansion, and its
permanency thereof
• The construction of the Ethio-Djibouti railway line along which many
stations have developed into important towns
• The five-year Italian occupation which has contributed to road
building, the establishment of small-scale industries and service giving
institutions
• The integration of the provincial capitals and major administrative
centres found in all directions by all-weather roads radiating from
Addis Ababa
• Political decentralization and provision of administrative status of some
urban settlements

• Proximity to existing cities and main transportation corridors trigger new

urban development through agglomeration and metropolisation effects

• High Population density and growth rates in the populous highlands of

Ethiopia facilitate the emergence of towns

• Presence of new and large commercial farms, mining areas, and agro-
industries such as sugar factories; as well as mega projects like fertilizer
factories, cement factories that attract people
• Large infrastructure investments such as airports and highways, and
dry ports that attract investment and create jobs encourage
urbanisation

• Opening of Universities that support entrepreneurial activity and

innovation in their local economies

• Tourism assets and attractions such as parks, resort centres, and

heritage cities and sites contribute to urban expansion

• Development of border towns with strengthened inter-country trade

Distribution of Urban Centers in Ethiopia
• Based on varying concentrations of urban centers and urban
populations, the Ministry of Urban Development and Construction
identified the following hierarchy of urban centers:
i. The Addis Ababa Metropolitan cluster
• includes Addis Ababa and its surrounding towns; and Adama and its
surrounding towns
• Secondary city clusters consist of:
-Lake Tana Urban Cluster: Bahir Dar, Gondar Debre Tabour,

Debre Markos
-South Rift Valley Urban Cluster: Hawassa-Shashemene-
Dilla; and Hosana- Sodo-Arba Minch
-Eastern Urban Cluster: Dire Dawa, Harar, Jigjiga
-Mekelle Urban Cluster: Mekelle, Adigrat, Shire, Axum
-Dessie- Kombolcha Urban Cluster
-Jima Urban Cluster: Jima, Agaro, Mizan, Tepi, Gambella
• Tertiary urban clusters
Nekemte Urban Cluster: Nekemte,
Dembidolo, Gimbi, Metu, Assosa
•Gode - Kebri Dar oasis city network
•Semera-Mille – Asaita oasis city
network
Growth Rate of Urban Centers
• The annual average national growth rate of urban population is about
5.0 percent
• Ethiopia’s towns are characterized by wide range of growth rates that
could be classified into one of the following three broad categories:
i. Declining Towns: towns whose populations are actually declining in
absolute numbers because net out migration is greater than natural
increase
-Axum, Goba and Maichew
ii. Slow Growing Towns: This category is composed of towns that grow
at the rate which is less than the rate of natural increase
• Towns such as Holeta, Harar and Gore have been indicated to grow
slowly in the recent past
iii. Fast Growing Towns: All towns with growth rates of greater than the
natural rate of increase make up this group
These towns pull large numbers of people from the declining or slowly
growing towns and rural areas due to the opportunities they offer
associated with expansion in industries, social services or a change in
their administrative status as zonal or regional capitals
Given the dynamism, however, it is wise to note that a once declining
town could be slowly or even fast growing after sometime and vice
versa
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES IN ETHIOPIA

• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary or the service sectors
• Increasingly the service sectors are seen as
forming a fourth or quaternary sector and a fifth
or quinary sector
 Primary Sector
• The primary sector includes the production of raw material and basic foods
• Activities associated with the primary sector include
- agriculture (both subsistence and commercial)
- mining
-forestry
-farming
- grazing
-hunting
-gathering
-fishing
-quarrying
Secondary sector
• The secondary sector of the economy manufactures finished goods
• All of manufacturing activities, and construction lie within the
secondary sector
Tertiary sector
• The tertiary sector of the economy is the service industry that
provides services to the general population and businesses

• Activities associated with this sector include retail and wholesale

sales, transportation and distribution, entertainment, restaurants,
clerical services, media, tourism, insurance, banking, healthcare, and
law
Mining Activity in Ethiopia
• Mining involves the search for minerals from the crust of the earth

• Minerals are naturally occurring organic and inorganic substances

• Currently, mining contributes to only 1.5 % of GDP (USD 32 billion)

• The oldest (Precambrian) rocks and the sedimentary (Mesozoic) rocks
host most of the economic metallic and nonmetallic mineral deposits
in Ethiopia
• So far, the developed large scale gold mine in Ethiopia is the Lege-
dembi gold mine, located in the southern greenstone belt region
• It is operated by private company with estimated reserve of 82 tons
and an average annual production of 3.6 tons of gold
• There is also small-scale open pit mine of columbo-tantalite at
Kenticha in the Adola belt
• Tantalum is used in making all electronic devices such as mobile
phones, cameras, computers and so forth and is thus highly
demanded
• Ethiopia presently supplies close to ten percent of the World
production of tantalum and has a good potential for a considerable
expansion of the percentage
• Soda ash is being mined at Lake Abiyata in the Rift
Valley
• The plant is producing about 5,000 tons soda ash per
year
• The consumers of the soda ash are local caustic soda
factory, soap and detergent manufacturers
• Kaolin, quartz and feldspar are also being mined from the Adola belt
in southern Ethiopia by government enterprise
• The consumers of the products are the Awash-Melkasa Aluminium
Sulphate and Sulfuric Acid Factory and the Tabor Ceramics Factory
• Silica sand is also being mined and utilized by local industries
• The cement factories of the country are using high quality limestone,
clay, gypsum and pumice as a raw material for cement production
• There is also large input of construction minerals such as sand,
gravel, scoria, crushed stones, aggregates, pumice, scoria, etc to the
construction industry (including buildings, roads, dams, bridges etc.)
• The gas fields are located in the south-eastern part of the country
at Calub, Hilala and Genale gas fields in the Ogaden Basin

• The gas resources potential of these fields has been assessed as

4.6 Trillion Cubic Feet (TCF)

• Other mineral products including platinum from laterite,

gemstones (opal and other precious stones) and decorative and
construction materials are also produced by licensed foreign and
local mining companies in the southern, western, central and
northern regions of the country
Status of the mineral sector investment in
Ethiopia
• The Ethiopian Mineral Development Share Company, a Government
organization (EMDSC) established in 2000 is engaged in all mining activities in the
country
• The Ezana Mining Development, functioning since 1993, a privately owned
Ethiopian enterprise in consulting in all aspects related to mining including
all types of explorations; the Midrock Gold, a subsidiary of Midrock Gold
Group, in operation at Shakisso town in southern Ethiopia, involved in gold
mining (production of 3500 kg of gold per year extracting 50,000 tons of rock per
month)
• The National Mining Corporation (set up in 1993), a private company
involved in all facets of mineral and petroleum product production including
by products
The importance of Mining sector in
Ethiopia
Economic benefits
• generates revenue from sales, taxes
• Generates foreign currency earnings
• Employment opportunity
• The federal government has been collecting royalty of about 48.5
million birr (4.4 million USD) from the large-scale production of gold
every year for the last three years
Social Benefits
• Expansion of infrastructures such as roads, electric power,
telecommunication etc
• Expansion of social services such as health facilities, schools
service, schools, water facilities as well as airstrips for the
local communities
• Train local communities to engage in other form of business
such as plantation of coffee and other trees, introducing
agricultural activities (irrigation)
• Promote small entrepreneur’s engagement in the local
community by providing services such as hotel, mini-
markets, stationeries, etc
Forestry
• It is related to exploiting forest products, which include gathering of
fuel wood, production of timber and charcoal, and construction of
houses
 Economic significance of forest
• Contribution to the national economy in the form of GDP is about 2.5%
• Most of the trees cut in Ethiopia today are used for domestic purposes like
for
-Fuel wood
-Timber household furniture
- For building and construction
• This indicates that forest products are sold on the local markets at lower
prices
• The commercial exploitation of forest resources in Ethiopia is still in its
infancy stage
Factors for the infancy of Ethiopian forest
exploitation
•Rapid deforestation

•Low demand for timer

•Lack of modern lumbering technology

•Inaccessibility of natural forest

 Fishery
• Fishing is a primary economic activity that involves harvesting of fish
resources from water bodies
• Due to the presence of a number of lakes, river and reservoirs rich in
fish resources, Ethiopia has great potential for fishing
• However, at present there is no reliable estimate due to lack of
exhaustive and systematic (regular) stock assessment
• At present in Ethiopia, more than hundred local fish species have
been identified
• The bulk of the production is made of Tilapia, Bargus, Clarias and
Labeo species. In the two southern Rift Valley lakes, Chamo and
Abaya, Nile Perch is caught in significant quantity
• Nile perch is also found in major riverine fisheries
Estimated fish Resource potential of Ethiopian lakes
Fishing Grounds in Ethiopia
• Most fishing activities in Ethiopia take place in fresh waters,
such as rivers, lakes and ponds

• According to Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Department,

Ethiopia’s fresh water bodies are known to have 101 species
of fish, among which four are endemic to the country

• In general, the Ethiopian fishing grounds could be classified

as Lakes and Rivers
 Lakes fishery
• The Ethiopian lakes are estimated to cover a surface area of about
7000 km2

• They account about 79 percent of the total yearly fish production of

the country

• The most important lakes where much of the fish production comes
include Lakes Tana, Ziway, Langano, Hawassa, Abaya and Chamo
• Among the 101 species of fish available in the country
25 of them are commercial fish species and are found
in the lakes
• Generally, the lakes have high promising potential for
the development of commercial fish industry
River Fishery
• Most rivers of Ethiopia have high fish resources
• Most fish production of the river is confined to local
consumption by villagers living near and around river banks
• The fishing potential of Ethiopian rivers has not yet been fully
known
• Tilapine species averaged about 50 percent, Catfish about 22
percent and Nile Perch about 9 percent of total production
over the last decade
Demand and consumption of fish
• People consume large amount of fish in fasting days, in big cities,
around production areas and towns, especially in Hawassa, Zeway,
Arbaminch, Bahir Dar and Addis Ababa
Ethiopian water bodies and their fisheries
Factors for low level of local fish consumption
• First, fish has not been integrated into the diet of most of the
population
• Second, because of religious influences on consumption patterns, the
demand for fish is only seasonal. The demand for fish is higher than
supply during fasting seasons
• The other factors that contribute to the low level of consumption are
the limited supply of the product and its high price.
• Long distance of the fish production sites from densely populated
areas and major settlements, together with its perishability reduce
fish consumption levels
• The rapid growth of population and the progressive shortage of
livestock products had changed the situation to a growing demand of
fish
Socio-economic contribution of the fishery
sector
Role of fisheries in the national economy
Trade
• The Ethiopian cross-border fish trade is currently not properly
documented
• However, available evidence from FAO Fishery and Aquaculture
Statistics,2015 has documented that the country earned 0.4 million USD
from exports and imports significant amounts of fish from neighbouring
countries amounted 3.8 million USD over the recent period
• The per capita fish food supply is around 300g, significantly below the
mean 2.6 kg per capita per year for the East African sub-region
Food security
• Fisheries are regarded as an important sector in the
effort to increase animal protein consumption and
achieve food security for the growing population
Employment
• A considerable workforce is employed, both directly
and indirectly, by Ethiopia’s capture fisheries which
also help in sustaining local communities. Whereas
4052 persons were employed directly by the sector in
2010, a total of 9,148 others benefited from indirect
employment offered by the sector
Fish meal as animal feed source
• Fishmeal is an excellent source of protein for animals
• The offal of fish can be processed and used for animal feed
• It has high levels of essential amino acids such as methionine
and lysine, and it also has a good balance of unsaturated
fatty acids
• These days, there is an increased demand of fishmeal from
poultry farmers
Sport fishing as a recreational value
• Recreational fishing (sport fishing) is particularly becoming
common in southern part of Lake Tana
• This activity has been started in the country since 1970s
Constraints and opportunities of the
fishing sector
• Factories, agriculture and sewage are the sources of major pollutants
affecting Ethiopian water bodies and their fisheries
• The extraction of minerals from Lake Abijata could have negative effect
on fish stocks, just as the effluents from the tannery at Koka Reservoir
and the textile industries at Hawassa and Arba Minch can affect the
fisheries
• Also, the increasing rate of deforestation could result in increased
drying up of water bodies and increase in water turbidity
• Further, the dam on River Omo has negatively affected the anadromous
fish which migrate from Lake Turkana to spawn in the river
• Inadequate legal and policy frameworks have largely given
rise to poor fishery resource exploitation resulting, in some
cases, in the overfishing of some important species, such as
the Nile perch in Lake Chamo, and tilapia in Lakes Hawassa
and Ziway
• Though there are fishery laws and regulations currently in
place, these legislations are inadequately implemented
• The sector also suffers from limited human resource
availability, with an acute shortage of trained personnel
• This poses serious constraints on fishery management and
technical and extension support services
• Public and private investment in fishery and aquaculture is
low and the infrastructure inadequate
• There is also an urgent need to invest in modern value chain-
based fish processing and marketing infrastructure
• Local fish demand can be greatly increased with a change in
the people’s food habit, in favour of fish
• Improvement in fishing techniques, technology transfer to
fishers, training of fishery management personnel, attraction
of financial capital to the industry, fish value chain
improvement, and aquaculture, can all result to increased
fish production, increased trade and overall economic
development of the country
• Attractive fish prices at local market for better profit; the presence of diversified
fish species; and inhabitants’ traditional knowledge for fisheries and good
consumption habit are considered as occasion for the sector escalation
• In addition, the future fishing villages’ offers homogeneous and less dispersed
pastoral communities which are ideal for social mobilization for poverty
alleviation programs
• Reservoir fisheries require minimal initial investment and provides quick returns
compared to other economic activities
• Access to microfinance facilities, which have received strong internal and
external support, will therefore promote rapid development of fisheries,
especially for the benefit of women and youth
• It does not also require sophisticated skills and knowledge for the entry and
coping up with operation at small scale level
• Absence of social and culture taboo in fish consumption is also another asset
for fish production in Ethiopia
Agriculture in Ethiopia
• Agriculture is defined as the purposeful tending of animals
and plants.
• It is one of man’s oldest activities, and dates back to the
Neolithic period (10,000 years before present).
• Even today, agriculture remains an important economic
activity accounting for more than 15 percent of the earth's
cultivable land.
• About 60 percent of the world's population gets its livelihood
from agriculture.
Factors Affecting Agriculture
• The type of agriculture practiced in any area is influenced by
physical and socio-economic factors.
• The environmental factors like soil; climate, relief, etc.
impose certain limitations on the types of crops that may be
cultivated and the type of livestock that may be reared.
• The socio-economic factors like farm size, type of land
tenure, capital availability, transport and marketing facilities,
price, government polices, etc. also influence farming
patterns.
Importance of agriculture

•It provides: basic food supplies for the

population; raw materials like cotton,
sugar cane, oil seeds, etc. to industries;
export crops, from whose sales
industries infrastructure and the like
may be established; and employment
for the population.
Characteristics of Ethiopian agriculture
• Despite a long history of agricultural practices in Ethiopia,
the sector is still very backward.
• Farming methods and techniques have hardly changed in the
last 2000 years.
• The sector is dominated by small-scale farmers that practice
rain-fed mixed farming by employing traditional technology,
adopting a low input and low output production system.
• It is also in this sector that the over whelming majority of the
poor reside.
The Contributions of Agriculture in
Ethiopia
• Agriculture accounts for most of (30- 42%) of the Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of the country.
• Agricultural products account for more than 90 percent of
the foreign exchange earnings of the country.
• Agriculture provides raw materials for the processing
industries
• More than 80 percent of the Ethiopian population derives its
livelihood directly from agriculture.
The Agricultural Resource Base/potentials
of Ethiopia
• Ethiopia has abundant agricultural resource base due to its varied agro-ecological
zones.
• The varied climatic conditions and contrasts in elevation allow for the cultivation of
various crops ranging from cool weather crops to sub-tropical and warm weather
crops.
• The country has no less than 21 soil types with varying physical and chemical features,
and in the alluvial beds of major rivers close to 16 percent of the country's area is
suitable for irrigated agriculture.
• The country has also vast grazing land and livestock population as the country
possesses a huge but largely unutilized potentials of livestock resources with a vast (55
– 58 % of its total land area) grazing land.
• The country has extensive livestock population, with estimated 30 – 35 million
livestock units (TLU) standing first in Africa and 10th in the world and numerous
livestock species.
Land Use
• Ethiopia has a total land area of about 113,000,000 hectares.
• There is no comprehensive survey of land use pattern in the
country but some estimates suggest that about 12.6million
hectares, 10.3% of the total area, is intensively cultivated,
and a further 15.3million hectares (12.5%) is moderately
cultivated.
• High forest and wood land areas account for 6.9%, while
grassland for 30.5% of the total area.
Irrigated Agriculture
• It is estimated that the major river basins of the country can irrigate about
3.5 million-hectare of land.
• At present only about 161,010 ha or 4.6% is irrigated around the major river
basins.
• Besides opening up new land for cultivation, irrigation allows to cultivate two
or three crops each year instead of a single crop most common under dry
farming.
• It also enables farmers to grow high value crops, especially fruits and
vegetables.
• Nonetheless, the amount of investment required to expand irrigated
agriculture around the major basins is often considerable.
Agricultural Land Use in Ethiopia
• Land resource is more crucial to the livelihood of the people
depending on agriculture:
• Agriculture is a land-based activity unlike secondary and tertiary
activities where contribution of land to its output is greater.
• Thus, lack of access to land is directly correlated with incidence of
poverty in rural areas.
• Quality of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture
• Land ownership has a social value and serves as a security for credit,
natural hazards or life contingencies, and also adds to the social status.
Definition of Agricultural Land
• Agricultural land refers to the share of land area that is arable, under permanent
crops, and under permanent pastures.
• Arable land includes land defined by the FAO as land under temporary crops (double-
cropped areas are counted once), temporary meadows for mowing or for pasture,
land under market or kitchen gardens, and land temporarily fallow.
• Land under permanent crops is land cultivated with crops that occupy the land for
long periods and need not be replanted after each harvest, such as cocoa, coffee,
and rubber.
• This category includes land under flowering shrubs, fruit trees, nut trees, and vines,
but excludes land under trees grown for wood or timber.
• Permanent pasture is land used for five or more years for forage, including natural
and cultivated crops.
Percent Distribution of the Land Use by
Different Types of Land Uses /2016/17
Cropping seasons in Ethiopia
• The two main crop seasons in Ethiopia are the belg and meher
seasons which receive rainfall from February to June and from June to
October, respectively.
• belg crop season is officially defined as any crop harvested between
March and August, while the meher crop season is defined as any
crop harvested between September and February.
• The meher crop season is the main season and produces 90-95
percent of the nation’s total cereals output, and the belg harvest
provides the remaining 5-10 percent of cereal output.
Cropping Pattern in Ethiopia
• The highlands of Ethiopia are easily distinguishable from their lowland
counter parts as far as the pattern of agricultural land use is concerned.
• The highlands do not only produce a variety of crops due to their improved
environmental conditions as well as due to the variety of agroecological zones
caused by altitudinal variations, but they also practice an elaborate system of
land preparation and crop rotation.
• The number of crops grown decreases as one moves from the central
highlands to the peripheral lowlands.
• The highlands are, thus, more diversified than the lowlands.
• Cereals (teff, wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, etc,) are the most important
crops in Ethiopia.
Animal Husbandry
• The distribution of livestock production in terms of agro-ecological zones and
administrative regions is very uneven.
• About 75% of the cattle and sheep population are found in the highland zone
while 70 percent of the goat and 100% of the camel population are found in
the lowlands.
• More than 90% of the livestock population is found in Oromia, Amhara and
SNNPR.
• The average number of cattle per household (per capital holdings) for the less
densely populated Afar region and Somali where livestock are central to the
livelihood of the pastoral population is the highest.
• Most of the total value of livestock output (70%) is contributed by cattle.
• Livestock contribute 30-35% to agricultural GDP and
13-16% to overall GDP.
• The livestock sector contributes about 13% of the
total value of agricultural export.
• The contribution of hides and skins from the livestock
exports is the highest (more than 95%).
• Despite a large livestock population, the contribution
of the livestock sector to the national economy is
limited due to primitive methods of livestock
breading, cultural attitudes, higher mortality rates of
livestock due to disease and other causes.
Characteristics of Ethiopian Agriculture
1. Subsistence Orientation
• In Ethiopia peasants produce mainly for their own household
consumption and only a limited proportion is meant for the market.
• It is found that peasants retain up to 80% of their produce for home
consumption and seeds.
• Similarly, Ethiopian peasants usually cultivate different types of crops
(10-15) and rear different types of livestock to meet their various
needs.
Characteristics of Ethiopian Agriculture
2. Fragmentation of farm plots and Small size of Holdings
• Because of the ever-increasing population that gave rise to
continuous generational division of land through generations; terrain
irregularities and prolonged degradation, holdings are highly
fragmented in Ethiopia.
• The average number of plots per household ranges mainly from 3-8.
• The vast majority of the farming households possess less than one
hectare of land, with the average land holding dropping to 0.28
ha/household nowadays.
Characteristics of Ethiopian Agriculture
3. Low Use of Inputs
• Ethiopian agriculture is characterized by low use of natural
and chemical fertilizers.
• Less than 60 percent of smallholder farmers used
commercial, chemical fertilizers while only 10 percent used
organic fertilizers in 2016.
• Thus, only a small proportion of the cropland is fertilized.
Characteristics of Ethiopian Agriculture
4. Susceptibility to Disasters
• Ethiopia is highly vulnerable to natural disasters such as
drought which affects the lives of millions of humans and
animals.
• The incidence and intensity of disasters has been increasing.
• Limited soil conservation measures, forest destruction and
expansion of agriculture into marginal areas increased the
frequency of drought.
• The natural disasters have usually resulted in famines.
Characteristics of Ethiopian Agriculture
5. Limited practice of irrigation and dependence on rainfed agriculture
• Although Ethiopia has vast area of irrigable land, the proportion of cultivated land is so small
due to physical (steep slopes and deep gorges, water logging, salinization and siltation….)
and human (e.g. capital, technology, skilled manpower etc) constraints.
• Therefore, there is great dependence on rain-fed agriculture which renders it highly
vulnerable to climatic changes.
• Over 98 percent of the Ethiopian farmers rely on rain-fed agriculture.
• Besides, the possibilities of expanding agricultural land under rain-fed practices are limited
or are not very high.
• Additional land that can be brought under rain fed is found in the area stretching from
Gambella to Humerra for some 100 kilometres of width occupying the western lowlands of
the country.
• Moreover, this area is drained by major rivers (Baro, Abbay & Tekkeze Rivers) and is
potentially suitable for irrigation.
Agriculture Systems in Ethiopia
• Agricultural system is defined in terms of similar resource basis,
enterprise patterns, household livelihood and constraint; and thus,
could have similar development strategies and interventions.
• Thus, an agricultural system is a practice and a way of life carried by
rural people who are confined to relatively similar agro-physical
resource basis and share more related socio-cultural, economic and
livelihood structures and patterns.
Agriculture Systems in Ethiopia
The agricultural systems of Ethiopia can be classified based on:

• The Agro-ecological patterns to which the practices have been

confined.
• Dominant types of crops or animals reared or combinations.
• Farming methods and tools used for cultivation, which are a reflection
of topographic and climatic influence.
• Level of technological input and the disposal of output.
Agriculture Systems in Ethiopia
Based on the dominant crops cultivated or animals reared and the
main implements used in cultivation, the following major farming
systems are identified:

1. Highland mixed farming system

2. Lowland mixed farming system
3. Pastoral system
4. Shifting cultivation
5. Commercial agriculture
1. Highland mixed farming system
• The highland areas of over 1500m.a.s.1 are characterized by ‘dega’
and ‘woina dega’ agroecological zones.
• The major characteristic feature of the farming activity is the
integration of crop and livestock production.
• Sub components of the system include:
A. Grain-plough complex
B. The Horticulture-Hoe complex
A. Grain-plough complex
• It is practiced in the central and northern parts of the country.
• Farmers mainly depend on cereals for subsistence which are grown along with
pulses and oil crops for some commercial purposes.
• Barley and wheat dominate in the grain-plough complex of Arsi and Bale, while
‘teff’ is the most important crop in the central and northern highlands of Shoa
and Gojjam.
• Harvesting is done using family labor or contributed labor from neighborhoods.
• Crop cultivation is mainly based on crop rotation.
• The plough is the main agricultural implement; and oxen are principal means of
draft power and equines provide the means of transport.
B. The Horticulture-Hoe complex
• This agricultural system is primarily found in the high rainfall humid
regions of southern and southwestern parts of the country.
• The land is cultivated with hoe (human power) for horticultural crops.
• The major crops grown include ‘enset’ (false banana), coffee, chat and
various other horticultural corps.
• In the ‘enset’ growing areas, farmers make intensive use of dung.
• Horticulture crops such as sweet potatoes/sugar beet, lemon, banana,
mango, and avocados are widely grown.
• In some areas draft animals are also used and cereals, pulses are
cultivated.
• Maize is the major cereal crop of the region grown; and
production is favorable and less variable than in the grain-
plough complex.
• In large parts of the Horticulture – hoe complex areas an
Agro – forestry farming system using multiple cropping
methods composed of coffee, Chat, Enset, with some tree
plants consisting both wood and fruit- trees which are grown
inter – mixed on small farm plots.
• The eastern highlands of Hararghe are also classified as part
of the horticulturehoe complex and sorghum (staple food
crop) is often intercropped with corps such as chat and sweet
potatoes.
• Livestock, mostly cattle, form an integral part of
the horticulture hoe system.
• With increasing population pressure and
farmland scarcity, stall-feeding has become a
common practice.
• However, in more humid areas, pests and
diseases (e.g. tsetse fly) have threatened
livestock husbandry.
2. Lowland mixed agriculture
• Lowland agriculture is practiced in the mountain foothills and the lower valleys below 1500m.a.s.l.
• The region is characterized by hot and dry conditions (450-800mm of rainfall) and shallow soils with
poor water retention.
• Lowland agriculture is common in the Rift Valley and northern areas of Awash River.
• Drought tolerant varieties of sorghum, maize, wheat, teff, oil corps and lowland pulses are grown.
• Livestock are also raised on common grazing land and crop residues.
• The plough is used in the cultivation.
• As a response to the shortage and variability of rainfall, farmers diversify their cropping patterns by
growing several crop varieties; shifting to early maturing crop varieties; and drought tolerant ones.
• In times of serious drought livestock are relied up on for survival.
• Other sources of income include sale of firewood and charcoal and off-farm employment
opportunities.
 3. Pastoral complex

• This type of agriculture is practiced in the arid and semiarid lowlands of Ethiopia where average annual
rainfall is less than 500mm by nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples of Afar, Somali and Borena zone of
Oromia and lowlands of the Southern Region of southern Omo and Lake Turkana area.
• Livestock rearing is the main economic activity in these sparsely populated dry and vast areas.
• Cattle, camels, sheep and goats are important animals forming the livelihood of the population.
• In some lowlands, crops are produced along flood plains and river banks.
• Almost all the camels, about ¾ of the goats, ¼ of the sheep and about 20% of the cattle are raised by
pastoral communities.
• About 90% of the live animals exported come from pastoral areas.
• A major constraint to animal husbandry in the pastoral areas is shortage of water especially during the long
dry season.
• Overgrazing has also reduced the quantity, quality, accessibility and stability of the resource base.
• Tropical livestock diseases are also major predicaments to the system.
• Encroachments by highlanders searching for farmland; and a shift to dry land cultivation by the nomads
themselves have restrained grazing opportunities.
• Range ecosystems are usually fragile because of lower fertility and shallow top soil.
Shifting cultivation
• This is the cut-and- burn cultivation system whereby a given plot of land is
cultivated after clearing until its natural fertility is exhausted to a level it cannot
support plant life any longer and then abandoned for another clearing.
• In Ethiopia shifting cultivation is practiced by some ethnic groups living in
western and south western fringes of the Ethiopian highlands and lowlands or
Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambella and Southern Regions where population density
is low and livestock rearing is limited in some areas due to tsetsefly infestation
(trypanosomiasis).
• The scale of shifting cultivation in terms size of people living by the practice is
presently on decline in the country, due to government intervention and
settlement (villagization) programs, and the subsequent introduction and sorting
the community to sedentary farming.
 Commercial agriculture
• Commercial agriculture is a modern farming practice involving the production of
crops or animal products for market by using some degree of mechanization and
hired laborers.
• It was introduced in the 1960s when the government decided to produce more
commercial corps to meet the growing demand for food in the urban areas and
agricultural raw materials for industries.
• Mechanized farms were concentrated in the Awash valley, Arsi, southern Shoa, and
Humera-Metema by the time many of which were nationalized (1975) and converted
into state farms.
• New coffee and tea farms were also created during the Dergue.
• The incumbent government also introduced large-scale sugarcane plantations for the
sugar industries
Major problems of Ethiopian agriculture
• Land degradation: because of the rugged topography, about half of
the cultivable land of Ethiopia is exposed to various level of soil
erosion.
• The soil in many areas has lost some biological productivity and
physical properties needed for optimal plant growth.
• Variable rainfall: Ethiopian agriculture is heavily dependent upon
unreliable rainfall which may produce surplus only in years of
favorable weather.
• The rain sometimes comes early or late; and at other times it falls
short of the required number of falls
• Land fragmentation: The increasing population size of rural
Ethiopia and the limited total land area, especially, in the
high land farming area has been the cause for declining per
capita landholding.
• Studies suggest that on the average, small land holding is less
than 1 hectare per household.
• As the land is too small to produce any marketable surplus
under the prevailing conditions, subsistence and survival are
the overriding concern of the farmers.
• This resulted in lack of cash for investment, purchase of
commercial inputs and purchase of oxen for land
preparation.
• Land tenure insecurity: land is the collective property of the
Ethiopian people and is not subject to buying and selling deal.
• Backward technology: In Ethiopia the smallholder farming is
characterized by dependence on traditional tools and farming
practices.
• Land preparing, is done by oxen drown plough; planting is performed
by manual broadcasting; weeding and harvesting are performed
manually; and threshing is also carried out by animals trampling the
harvested crop.
• Moreover, agricultural produce in transported by primitive means like
pack animals and human percentage.
• Low application of modern inputs fertilizer pesticides, and improved
seeds) poor animal breeds etc also characterize the Ethiopian small
holder farming.
• Poor rural infrastructure: transport and communication systems area
poorly developed. Agricultural output is usually carried long distance
by traditional transport means like pack animals or by humans, to sale
place. The poor infrastructure has severely hampered socioeconomic
development particularly in the rural area.
• Other problems that constrain Ethiopian agriculture include,
overgrazing, nutrition stress and diminished grazing land area;
widespread prevalence of different diseases and parasites; poor
genetic structure and lower productivity in terms of growth, yield
and reproduction; weak agricultural research and extension; and
capital constraints of peasants required for investment in their farms
among others
Manufacturing Industry in Ethiopia
• Manufacturing is a process of changing commodities to consumable forms.
• Industrial development in Ethiopia is extremely backward.
• Most of the manufacturing industries are light industries i.e. industries that
process consumer goods like textiles, food, tobacco etc.
• Heavy industries that manufacture capital goods are very small.
• The contribution of the industrial sector to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) over recent periods is only 11.7 percent.
• The backwardness of the industrial sector is an indication of the low-level
development of the Ethiopian economy.
• In the modern world development is equated with industrialization.
• The employment distribution of the different firm size
within the manufacturing sector indicated that micro
enterprises employ 138,951 (51%); small enterprises
employ 10,960 (3.9%); medium enterprises employ
14, 757 (5.4%) and large enterprises employ 108,226
(39.7%) in 2007/08 alone.

• The Ethiopian large and medium size manufacturing

sector is dominated by food and beverages.
Types and characteristics of
manufacturing
The Cottage (traditional)industries
• weaving, woodcarving, pottery, metal works, basketry etc.
• A peculiar feature of the cottage industries in Ethiopia is that they remain static;
i.e., they existed with little changes and refinement
• Negative traditional attitudes towards such activities
• The activities were considered of low social cast activities.
• People engaged in such activities were despised and were given various
pejoratives such as "buda" "faki" etc.
• Other than the aforementioned factor other factors include the limited
availability of the factors of industrialization such as minerals, market,
agricultural raw materials and sources of power, which are the basis for
industrial development.
The Spatial Distribution of Manufacturing
Industries in Ethiopia
• The total number of large and medium scale manufacturing industries
reported in 2015/16 was 3,596.

• About 37 percent of the manufacturing industries were located in

Addis Ababa followed by Oromia with more than 27 percent and
Tigray with about 14 percent of the industries.
Factors Affecting the Spatial Distribution
of Manufacturing Industries in Ethiopia
• The agglomeration of industries in towns and specific regions
mentioned above is explained by the availability of infrastructural
facilities.

• In the case of the Addis Ababa-Adama industrial area, the Addis-

Djibouti railway, proximity to the port of Djibouti, and availability of
social service facilities are important.

• Political decisions could also influence the spatial distribution of

manufacturing industries.
• Manufacturing industries designated as top priority in the latest five-
year development plan (2015 to 2020:
-The agro-processing industries
-leather products
-the textile and apparel sectors
The main reasons include:
I. strong linkages with the agricultural sector as they use inputs from
the livestock and cotton sectors,
II. they are also both labour intensive, thus absorbing labor from the
agricultural sector, and
III. they have major export potential and low entry barriers.
 To unleash these supportive industries, the government established
industrial parks across the country to cluster these industries
Industrial parks/zones in Ethiopia

• The development and construction of industrial parks started

in 2014.
• Three mechanisms are in place for the establishment of
Industrial Parks :
a. fully developed by the federal or regional government;
b. developed by public-private participations with the
Industrial Parks Development Corporation
c. private developers only
Industrial parks/zones in Ethiopia
• Industrial parks in Ethiopia can also be categorized based on their
focus sector:
-Textile and garment

- Leather and shoes

-Agro-processing

-Pharmaceutical

-IT park
 Distribution of Industrial parks (IPs) and Zones in Ethiopia
No Name Location Main industry

Federal Development Park

1 Bole Lemi Industrial Park Addis Ababa Garment
2 Hawassa Industrial Park SNNPR Garment

3 Mekele Industrial Park Tigray Garment

4 Kombolcha Industrial Park Amhara Garment
5 Jima Industrial Park Oromia Garment

6 Adama Industrial Park Oromia Assembling, garment, food

7 Bole Lami Industrial Park II Addis Ababa Garment

8 Kilinto Industrial Park Addis Ababa Pharmaceutical, medical

equipment
9 Dire Dawa Industrial park Dire Dawa Assembling, garment, food

10 Bahir Dar Industrial park Amhara Garment

11 Arerti Industrial Park Amhara Construction products, home appliance
12 Debre Birhan Industrial Park Amhara Construction products, home appliance
13 Aysha Industrial Park Somali Construction products, home appliance
14 Airline and logistics parks 4 Addis Ababa Transportation

15 Addis Industrial Village 5 Addis Ababa

16 Modjo Leather City Oromia

Regionally Developed parks

1 Bure Integrated Agro- Amhara Agro-processing
Industrial Park
2 Bulbula Integrated Agro- Oromia Agro-processing
Industrial Park
3 Yirgalem Integrated Agro- SNNPR Agro-processing
Industrial Park
4 Baeker Integrated Agro- Tigray Agro-processing
Industrial Park
No Name Location Main industry

Private parks
1 Eastern Industrial Oromia Various
park
2 Huajian Light Addis Ababa Shoes, garment
Industry City
3 Modjo George Oromia Leather
Shoe Industrial
Park
Dire Dawa Linen
4 Kingdom Linen
Industry Zone
 Contributions of Industrial Parks in
Ethiopia
• Stimulating investment and creating employment
• Facilitating export growth and foreign exchange earnings
• Developing industrial clusters through forward/backward linkages
• Eliciting knowledge transfer and technology spill over
• Establishing connections to global value chain
• Fostering Sustainable Growth and social equality
• Enforcing implementation of national industrialization strategy
The Sugar Sector Mega Projects in
Ethiopia
• Sugar Industry is one of the industries which contributes immensely for the industrial
transformation of our country.

• Ethiopia has favorable climate for sugarcane development.

• It also has more than 500 thousand hectares of irrigable land suitable for the sector.

• Moreover, it has abundant untapped water resource.

• These make the sector seek more attention and a coordinated effort
• Until recently, Ethiopia has been a net importer of sugar as the two old sugar
factories (Wonji and Metehara) have limited capacity to meet domestic
demand.

• One of the targets of the first Growth and Transformation Program (GTP I) was
to expand the sugar sector with the ambition for Ethiopia to become one of
the top ten sugar exporters in the world.

• This plan involved the construction of ten large sugar plantations and factories
like Omo-Kuraz Sugar Factory II, Kessem , Arjo Dediessa, Tendaho, Finchaa,
Metehara, Wolqayet Sugar development project, Tana-belese Sugar Factory II
etc.
 Industrial development in Ethiopia:
Challenges and Opportunities
• Ethiopia has adopted different policies for the development of
industry over the past century.
• The industrial policies have distinctive features when looking at the
guiding vision (policy), ownership structure, and market
orientation.
• Broadly, they can be characterized as the import substitution and
private sector-led (from early 1950s to 1974); the import
substitution and state-led (from 1974 to 1991), and the export-
orientated and private sector-led from 1991.
Challenges and opportunities of industrial
development in Ethiopia
The Service Sector in Ethiopia
• Tertiary institutions include wholesale and retail outlets, banking and
other financial services, governmental and educational services,
medical facilities, and much other business and service functions
upon which we depend daily.

• Security services, transportation, information and telecommunication

services, tourism, health services, education institutions and research
centers all are vital tertiary economic activities
Transportation and communication in
Ethiopia: types, roles and characteristics
Transportation
• Transportation is a service or facility by which persons, manufactured
goods, and property are physically carried from one location to
another.
• The role of transportation in socio-economic development is that it
allows for: division of labor and labor specialization, procurement of
raw materials from various sources, dispatch of goods to market
places and personal mobility etc.
Five different types of transport in
Ethiopia
a. Traditional Transport
• This includes the use of pack animals (donkeys, mules, horses, camel)
and goods carried by humans.
• The contribution of these means of transport to the national economy
is not known in statistical terms.
• In rural Ethiopia where modern transport systems are very few, it is
obvious that they make immense contributions.
• Even in urban areas like Addis Ababa, modern means of transport has
not totally done away with the traditional means.
b. Road Transport
• Today most passengers and goods in Ethiopia are transported by road
transport.
• In Ethiopia road transportation is relatively a recent phenomenon. Italians
basically started it during their period of occupation.
• These roads were essentially built for military movement purposes.
• In other words, they were not built for the purpose of economic
integration of the country.
• Later on, with Addis Ababa growing as the political center of the country,
the roads built in subsequent periods were constructed for administrative
connections.
• The radial patterns of network development with the center being Addis
Ababa, exhibits administrative integration rather than economic
integration.
Road Network
• Data obtained from the Ethiopian Roads Authority
showed that during 2004/05 classified road network
in Ethiopia was 37,018 km while the total road
network increased rapidly and reached 126,773 km
during 2017/18 (this includes 35,958 km rural road
(28.3%).
 Road Density
• The rugged terrain in Ethiopia makes road construction difficult
and expensive.
• The road density/1000 persons was 0.5 in 2004/5 that increased to
1.27 in 2017/18.
• Likewise the road density/1000square kilometer was 33.7 in
2004/5 that improved in a way to 115.2 in 2017/18.
• Although the road network has shown an increasing trend, the
progress so far is still far below the need compared to the large
land area and population of the country.
• Network distribution per thousand sq. km and per million people is
only 115.2 km and 1.3 km, respectively.
• This makes the country one of the least accessible in Sub-Sahara
Africa.
Railway
• Compared to those of the developed countries the railway was backward.
• It was also a single lane track.
• Recently a new railway line of 750 km length connecting Addis Ababa to
Djibouti, was officially inaugurated in Djibouti in 2018.
• More than 95% of Ethiopia's trade passes through Djibouti, accounting for
70% of the activity at the Port of Djibouti.
• The other important railway is Addis Ababa Light Rail Transit.
• It is the first light rail and rapid transit in eastern and sub-Saharan
Africa.
 Waterways

• Waterways are two types.

1.seaways
2.inland waterways
• Ethiopia being a landlocked country does not have direct access to such
areas. Presently, the Red Sea through the port of Djibouti is very important
for Ethiopia's external trade.
• Inland waterways are classified in to two i.e., rivers and lakes.
• Because of the nature of the topography over which Ethiopian rivers flow,
Ethiopian rivers with the exception of Baro and Omo in their lower courses,
cannot be used for transportation.
• On some of the lakes like Tana and Abaya there is small-scale transportation.
• The contribution of inland waterways to the Ethiopian economy is very small.
Airways
• Air transport is the fastest means of transportation

• It is very essential for a country like Ethiopia, where

the topography is difficult for communication.

• The problem with air transportation is that they are

expensive and cannot be used for transporting bulky
products.
 Communications
• Communication is the process of conveying messages to others.
• An effective communication system plays a vital role to:
-accelerate the pace of development
- enhance closer social integration
-promote the basic aim of economic activities
• Some of the communication services that are commonly used in
Ethiopia include radio, television, internet, satellite, print
publications, fixed and mobile telephones, and post offices.
• Microwave radio; open-wire; HF, VHF, UHF radio communication
services; and satellite contribute to the domestic
telecommunications system.
 The Contribution of Transportation and
communication to Socio-Economic Development
• It creates job opportunity
• It promotes investment sector - on infrastructure development.
• Transportation plays a big role for both national and international trade.
• It serves as a source of income generation both for governments and the public
• It contributes to the maintaining a country’s peace, political wellbeing and
stability
• Plays the role of linking rural areas and rural products to urban centers and
helps in increasing and interconnecting market outlets
• Makes big contribution to the development of tourism, entertainment, sports
and peaceful relationship among people.
• Although the expansion of the transport sector is of tremendous
economic, social and political benefit, there are nevertheless some
negative aspects to it.

• The fact that its energy consumption is high, that it is foremost

among the factors that contribute to environmental pollution, that it
has been classified among the world's killer diseases with regard
to traffic accidents, and that it has become a source of anxiety in
terms of congestion constitute the negative side of the transport
sector.
Trade in Ethiopia
• Trade is a process of exchange of products
involving change in ownership of commodities.
• The development of trade in a country depends
on the development of production activities.
• Trade basically arises when regions or persons
complement one another with their products.
 Structure of Commodity Export of Ethiopia

• As the Ethiopian economy is an agrarian economy, its merchandise

(visible) export is determined by agricultural products.
• The export structure of Ethiopia has been characterized by greater
concentration of few traditional exports such as coffee, oil seeds,
and pulses and “chat”.
• Coffee dominates the total merchandise export item of the country
and accounts for 29.5% of visible export earnings.
• Oilseeds accounting for 14.9 % take the second position followed by
pulses 9.5 %, and chat 9.5 % .
The Geographic Structure of Exports
• Alike the commodity structure, the country’s exports has
been concentrated geographically with largest proportion of
exports destined to limited markets.
• The major export destinations for Ethiopian goods show
that Asia accounted for 39.8 % of Ethiopia’s export earnings
followed by Europe (28.7%).
• On the other hand, about 20.9 % of Ethiopia’s export
earnings originated from markets in Africa
• Looking at the direction of trade by individual country, five
countries (China, USA, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia and
Djibouti) are important which account for 39% of the
Ethiopia’s export between in 2015/2016.

• With regard to imports of goods, during 2017/18, Asia

accounted for 64.2 percent of the total imports of Ethiopia
followed by Europe (19.3 %).Ethiopia’s total imports with the
U.S.A accounted for 9.4 percent of the total import bill.
About 51% of Ethiopian’s merchandise import originated
from china, U.S.A, Japan, Italy, and USA
 Tourism in Ethiopia: Types, major tourist
attraction sites, challenges and prospects
• Ethiopia is endowed with unique landscape, paleontological,
archaeological, historical and living cultural tourism attractions.
• Based on these attractions diverse types of tourism are there in the
country.
• The common tourism forms in the country include living culture tourism,
history tourism, archaeology tourism, palaeontology tourism, park tourism,
geo-tourism, agrobiodiversity and coffee tourism, rural tourism, conference
tourism and sport tourism
 Major Tourist attraction sites of Ethiopia
Historic Attraction sites
i. The Obelisk of Axum
ii. The Churches of Lalibela- the UNESCO has named
the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela as the 8th wonders
of the world.
iii. The Castles of Gondar
iv. The Walls of Harar
• The city of Harar is considered as the 4th holy city of
Islam
 Natural Attraction sites
i. The Blue Nile Falls- locally known as Tississat presents a spectacular water fall
with an intense gash from more than forty-five meters (150feet) peak,
producing rainbows across the gorge. The area is also inhabited with fascinating
wild lives and birds.
ii. Simien Mountains- are home of Ethiopia's highest peak Ras Dashen with the
height of 4,620 meters above sea level.The endemic Walia Ibex and the Gelada
baboon are also found here.
iii. The Rift Valley Lakes- The Valley embraces the beautiful chains of lakes with
abundant wildlife and variety of birds.
• The Rift Valley comprises famous natural parks known as Abijatta-Shalla,
Nechisar, Mago and Omo national parks.
iv. The National Parks: present spectacular visiting opportunities for tourists that
are keen on admiring and enjoying nature.
The Role of Tourism in the Economy of
Ethiopia
• The direct export earnings generated by tourism in Ethiopia are
increasing, and tourism seems to be the third source of export
revenue after agriculture and industry.

• The industry is now an important source of employment accounting

for 2.4% of total employment in 2017 representing 604,000 jobs
directly and this is forecast to grow by 1.9% per annum in 2028 to
742,000 jobs (2.1% of total employment).
Challenges of the tourism sector to be
addressed
• Weak institutional framework and implementation capacity, skilled human
resources and financing
• Very limited accommodating capacity of international standards for leisure
tourism, with investment concentrated in main cities and business-type hotels
• Lack of basic and IT infrastructure present challenges for tourism businesses
• Narrow product range offered to the market by incoming operators
• Weak private sector associations
• Unplanned destination development
• Poor visitor management in natural and heritage sites puts sites at risk
• Poor tourism statistics