HYPOTHESIS TESTING

TRADITIONAL METHOD
A statistical hypothesis is a conjecture about a population
parameter. This conjecture may or may not be true.

The null hypothesis, symbolized by H0, is a statistical

hypothesis that states that there is no difference between a
parameter and a specific value, or that there is no
difference between two parameters.
The alternative hypothesis, symbolized by H1, is a
statistical hypothesis that states the existence of a
difference between a parameter and a specific value, or
states that there is a difference between two parameters.
A medical researcher is interested in finding out whether a
new medication will have any undesirable side effects. The
researcher is particularly concerned with the pulse rate of
the patients who take the medication. Will the pulse rate
increase, decrease, or remain unchanged after a patient
takes the medication?
Since the researcher knows that the mean pulse rate for the population under
 

study is 82 beats per minute, the hypotheses for this situation are

H0: m 82 and H1: m 82

The null hypothesis specifies that the mean will remain unchanged, and the
alternative hypothesis states that it will be different. This test is called a two-
tailed test (a term that will be formally defined later in this section), since the
possible side effects of the medicine could be to raise or lower the pulse rate.
A chemist invents an additive to increase the life of an
 

automobile battery. If the mean lifetime of the automobile

battery without the additive is 36 months, then her
hypotheses are

H0: m 36 and H1: m 36

In this situation, the chemist is interested only in increasing the
lifetime of the batteries, so her alternative hypothesis is that the
mean is greater than 36 months. The null hypothesis is that the
mean is equal to 36 months. This test is called right-tailed,
since the interest is in an increase only.
A contractor wishes to lower heating bills by using a special type of
 

insulation in houses. If the average of the monthly heating bills is $78

her hypotheses about heating costs with the use of insulation are

H0: m $78 and H1: m $78

This test is a left-tailed test, since the contractor is interested

only in lowering heating costs.
Two-tailed test
 
Right-tailed test Left-tailed test
H0: m k H0: m k H0: m k
H1: m k H1: m k H1: m k
EXAMPLE 8–1
State the null and alternative hypotheses for each conjecture.

a. A researcher thinks that if expectant mothers use vitamin pills, the birth weight
of the babies will increase. The average birth weight of the population is 8.6
pounds.

b. An engineer hypothesizes that the mean number of defects can be decreased in a

manufacturing process of USB drives by using robots instead of humans for certain tasks.
The mean number of defective drives per 1000 is 18.

c. A psychologist feels that playing soft music during a test will change the results
of the test. The psychologist is not sure whether the grades will be higher or
lower. In the past, the mean of the scores was 73.
A statistical test uses the data obtained from a sample to make a decision about
whether the null hypothesis should be rejected.

The numerical value obtained from a statistical test is called the test value.
 The level of significance is the maximum probability of committing a type I error.

This probability is symbolized by (Greek letter alpha). That is, P(type I error) .

The critical or rejection region is the range of test values that indicates that there is a
significant difference and that the null hypothesis should be rejected.

The noncritical or non rejection region is the range of test values that indicates that the
difference was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis should not be
rejected.

The critical value separates the critical region from the noncritical region. The
symbol for critical value is C.V.
The four possibilities are as follows:

1. We reject the null hypothesis when it is true. This would be an incorrect decision
and would result in a type I error.

2. We reject the null hypothesis when it is false. This would be a correct decision.

3. We do not reject the null hypothesis when it is true. This would be a correct
decision.

4. We do not reject the null hypothesis when it is false. This would be an incorrect
decision and would result in a type II error
  𝐻 𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒  𝐻 𝑜 𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒

 Reject

 Do not
Reject
A one-tailed test indicates that the null hypothesis should be rejected when the
test value is in the critical region on one side of the mean. A one-tailed test is
either a right-tailed test or a left-tailed test, depending on the direction of the
inequality of the alternative hypothesis.
In a two-tailed test, the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value is in either
of the two critical regions.
   𝛼 =0.10 𝐶𝑉 =− 1.28
 
: { 𝛼 =0.05 𝐶𝑉 =− 1.65
𝛼 =.01 𝐶𝑉 =− 2.33

{
  𝛼 =0.10 𝐶𝑉 =+1.28  
 
:
{ 𝛼 =0.05 𝐶𝑉 =+1.65
𝛼 =.01 𝐶𝑉 =+2.33

  𝛼 =0.10 𝐶𝑉 =±1.65
 
: { 𝛼 =0.05 𝐶𝑉 =± 1.96
𝛼 =.01 𝐶𝑉 =± 2.58
 Procedure Table
Finding the Critical Values for Specific A Values, Using Table E

Step 1 Draw the figure and indicate the appropriate area.

a. If the test is left-tailed, the critical region, with an area equal to , will be on the
left side of the mean.

b. If the test is right-tailed, the critical region, with an area equal to , will be on
the right side of the mean.

c. If the test is two-tailed, must be divided by 2; one-half of the area will be to

the right of the mean, and one-half will be to the left of the mean.
 Step 2

a. For a left-tailed test, use the z value that corresponds to the area equivalent to in Table
E.

b. For a right-tailed test, use the z value that corresponds to the area equivalent to 1- .

c. For a two-tailed test, use the z value that corresponds to /2 for the left value. It will be
negative. For the right value, use the z value that corresponds to the area equivalent to 1- /
2. It will be positive.
 EXAMPLE 8–2

Using Table E in Appendix A, find the critical value(s) for each situation and draw the
appropriate figure, showing the critical region.

a. A left-tailed test with 0.10.

b. A two-tailed test with 0.02.

c. A right-tailed test with = 0.005.

Procedure Table
Solving Hypothesis-Testing Problems (Traditional Method)

Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

Step 2 Find the critical value(s) from the appropriate table in Appendix A.

Step 3 Compute the test value.

Step 4 Make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.

Step 5 Summarize the results.

 EXAMPLE 8–3 Intelligence Tests

In Pennsylvania the average IQ score is 101.5. The variable is normally distributed, and
the population standard deviation is 15. A school superintendent claims that the students
in her school district have an IQ higher than the average of 101.5. She selects a random
sample of 30 students and finds the mean of the test scores is 106.4. Test the claim at =
0.05.
 Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
H0: m 101.5 and H1: m 101.5 (claim)
 Step 2 Find the critical value. Since a 0.05 and the test is a right-tailed test,
the critical value is z1.65.
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the
IQ of the students is higher than the state average IQ.
EXAMPLE 8–4 SAT Tests

For a specific year, the average score on the SAT Math test was 515.* The variable is
normally distributed, and the population standard deviation is 100. The same
superintendent in the previous example wishes to see if her students scored significantly
below the national average on the test. She randomly selected 36 student scores, as
shown. At a 0.10, is there enough evidence to support the claim?

496 506 507 505 438 499

505 522 531 762 513 493
522 668 543 519 349 506
519 516 714 517 511 551
287 523 576 516 515 500
243 509 523 503 414 504
 Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
H0: m 515 and H1: m 515 (claim)

Step 2 Find the critical value. Since a 0.10 and the test is a left-tailed test, the
critical value is 1.28.
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that
the students scored below the national average.
EXAMPLE 8–5 Cost of Rehabilitation

The Medical Rehabilitation Education Foundation reports that the average cost of
rehabilitation for stroke victims is $24,672. To see if the average cost of rehabilitation
is different at a particular hospital, a researcher selects a random sample of 35 stroke
victims at the hospital and finds that the average cost of their rehabilitation is $26,343.
The standard deviation of the population is $3251. At a 0.01, can it be concluded that
the average cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is different from
$24,672?
Source: Snapshot,
 Step
1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
H0: m $24,672 and H1: m $24,672 (claim)

Step 2 Find the critical values. Since a 0.01 and the test is a two-tailed test, the critical
values are 2.58 and 2.58.
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the
average cost of rehabilitation at the particular hospital is different from $24,672.
 EXAMPLE 8–8
Find the critical t value for 0.05 with d.f. 16 for a right-tailed t test.

Find the 0.05 column in the top row labeled One tail and 16 in the left-hand
column. Where the row and column meet, the appropriate critical value is found;
it is 1.746.
 EXAMPLE 8–9

Find the critical t value for 0.01 with d.f. = 22 for a left-tailed t test.
SOLUTION
Find the 0.01 column in the row labeled One tail, and find 22 in the left column. The
critical value is - 2.508 since the test is a one-tailed left test.
 EXAMPLE 8–10
Find the critical values for 0.10 with d.f. = 18 for a two-tailed t test.

 Find the 0.10 column in the row labeled Two tails, and find 18 in the column labeled
d.f. The critical values are 1.734 and -1.734.
 
Assumption for t Test for a Mean when
is Unknown
 Assumptionsfor the t Test for a Mean When S Is Unknown
1. The sample is a random sample.

2. Either n 30 or the population is normally distributed when n 30.

EXAMPLE 8–12 Hospital Infections

A medical investigation claims that the average number of infections per week at a
hospital in southwestern Pennsylvania is 16.3. A random sample of 10 weeks had a
mean number of 17.7 infections. The sample standard deviation is 1.8. Is there
enough evidence to reject the investigator’s claim at a 0.05? Assume the variable is
normally distributed.
Step 5 There is enough evidence to reject the claim that the average number of
infections is 16.3.
EXAMPLE 8–13 Starting Salary for Nurse Practitioners

According to payscale.com, the average starting salary for a nurse practitioner is

$79,500. A researcher wishes to test the claim that the starting salary is less than
$79,500. A random sample of 8 starting nurse practitioners is selected, and their starting
salaries (in dollars) are shown. Is there enough evidence to support the researcher’s claim
at a 0.10? Assume the variable is normally distributed.

82,000 68,000 70,200 75,600

83,500 64,300 78,600 79,000
 Step 1 State the hypothesis and identify the claim.
H0: m $79,500 and H1: m $79,500 (claim)

Step 2 Find the critical value. At a 0.10 and d.f. 7, the critical value is
1.415.
Z test for Proportions
Assumption for Testing a Proportion

 
1. The sample is random sample
2.The conditions for binomial experiment are satisfied
 
A researcher claims that based on the information
obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 17% of young people ages 2-19 are obese. To
test this claim, she randomly selected 200 people ages 2-
19 and found out that 42 were obese. At , is there
enough evidence to reject the claim?
 
The Gallup Crime Survey stated that 23% of gun owners are women.
A Researcher that believes that in the area where he lives, the
percentage is less than 23%. He randomly selects a sample
of 100 gun owners and finds that 11% of the gun owner in his
area are women. At ercentage of female gun
owners in his area less than 23%?
 
A statistician read that at least 77% of the population oppose
Replacing $ 1 bills with $ coins. To see if the claims is valid, the
statistician selected a random sample of 80 people and found
that 55 were opposed to replacing the $ bills. At
test the claim that at least 77% of the population are opposed
to the change.
Chi-Square Test for a Single Variance
Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Using the
z Test
EXAMPLE 9–1 Leisure Time
A study using two random samples of 35 people each found that the average amount of
time those in the age group of 26–35 years spent per week on leisure activities was 39.6
hours, and those in the age group of 46–55 years spent 35.4 hours. Assume that the
population standard deviation for those in the first age group found by previous studies
is 6.3 hours, and the population standard deviation of those in the second group found by
previous studies was 5.8 hours. At a 0.05, can it be concluded that there is a significant
difference in the average times each group spends on leisure activities?
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to support the claim that
the means are not equal. That is, the average of the times spent on leisure activities
is different for the groups.
 
California and New York lead the list of average teachers’
Salaries in the US. The California yearly average is 64,421
while teachers in New York make an average annual
Salary of 62,332. Random sample of 45 teachers from each
State yielded the following.

California New York

Sample Mean 64,510 62,900
Population S.D. 8,200 7,800
At is there a difference in the means of the
salaries?
 
A researcher hypothesizes that the average number of sports
that colleges offer for males is greater than the number of
sports that colleges offer for females. A sample of the number
of sports that offered by colleges is shown. At , is
There enough evidence to support the claim?
assume
Male: 6, 11,5,9,10,7,9,15,11,7,5,18,10,12,9
Female: 6,7,11,13,14,4,6,5,16,18,13,5,12,9,15
Testing the Difference Between Two Means of
Independent Samples: Using the t -Test
EXAMPLE 9–4 Weights of Newborn Infants
A researcher wishes to see if the average weights of newborn male infants are different
from the average weights of newborn female infants. She selects a random sample of 10
male infants and finds the mean weight is 7 pounds 11 ounces and the standard deviation
of the sample is 8 ounces. She selects a random sample of 8 female infants and finds that
the mean weight is 7 pounds 4 ounces and the standard deviation of the sample is 5
ounces. Can it be concluded at a 0.05 that the mean weight of the males is different
from the mean weight of the females? Assume that the variables are normally
distributed.
 Step1
State the hypotheses and identify the claim for the means.
H0: m1 = m2 and H1: m1 m2 (claim)

 Step 2
Find the critical values. Since the test is two-tailed and a 0.05, the degrees of
freedom are the smaller of n1 - 1 or n2 - 1. In this case, n1 - 1 = 10 – 1= 9 and n2
- 1 = 8 - 1 = 7. From Table F, the critical values are 2.365 and 2.365.
Step 5 Summarize the results.

There is not enough evidence to support the claim that the mean of the weights of
the male infants is different from the mean of the weights of the female infants.
Testing the Difference Between Two Means:
Dependent Samples
 Assumptions for the t Test for Two Means When
the Samples are Dependent

1. The sample or samples are random.

2. The sample data are dependent.
3. When the sample size or sample sizes are less than 30, the population or
populations must be normally or approximately normally distributed.
 Step 1 State the hypothesis and identify the claim. Since we are interested to see if
there has been an increase in deposits, the deposits 3 years ago must be less than
the deposits today; hence, the deposits must be significantly less 3 years ago than
they are today. Hence, the mean of the differences must be less than zero.

H0: mD =0 and H1: mD 0 (claim)

 Step
2 Find the critical value. The degrees of freedom are n - 1, or 9 – 1= 8.
Using Table F, the critical value for a left-tailed test with 0.05 is -1.860.
Step 3. Compute the test value
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to show that the
deposits have increased over the last 3 years.
 Step1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim. If the diet is effective, the
before cholesterol levels should be different from the after levels.
H0: m D = 0 and H1: m D 0 (claim)

 Step 2 Find the critical value. The degrees of freedom are 6 - 1 = 5. At a 0.10,
the critical values are 2.015.

Step 3 Compute the test value.

a. Make a table.
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to support the claim
that the mineral changes a person’s cholesterol level.
Testing the Difference
Between
Two Variances
 EXAMPLE 9–12
Find the critical value for a right-tailed F test when 0.05, the degrees of freedom
for the numerator (abbreviated d.f.N.) are 15, and the degrees of freedom for the
denominator (d.f.D.) are 21.