Group Theory

Properties of
Homomorphisms
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Theorem: Let h be a homomorphism from a group G

into a group G’. Let K be the kernel of h. Then
a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} = h -1[{h(a)}]
and also
K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} = h -1[{h(a)}]
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Proof
h -1[{h(a)}] = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} directly from the
definition of inverse image.
Now we show that: a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)} :
x in a K ⇔ x = a k, for some k in K
⇔ h(x) = h(a k) = h(a) h(k) = h(a) , for some k in K
⇔ h(x) = h(a)
Thus, a K = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}.
Likewise, K a = {x in G | h(x) = h(a)}.
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Suppose: h: X  Y is any map of sets. Then h

defines an equivalence relation ~h on X by:
x ~h y ⇔ h(x) = h(y)
The previous theorem says that when h is a homomorphism
of groups then the cosets (left or right) of the kernel of h are
the equivalence classes of this equivalence relation.
Group Theory

Properties of
Homomorphisms
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Definition
If ϕ: G → G' is a group morphism, the kernel of ϕ ,
denoted by Ker ϕ, is defined to be the set of
elements of G that are mapped by f to the identity of
G'. That is, Ker f ={g ∈ G|f (g) = e' }.

6
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Corollary
Let ϕ: G → G' be a group morphism. Then, ϕ is
injective if and only if Ker ϕ = {e}.

7
 Properties of Homomorphisms

Proof
If Ker(ϕ) = {e}, then for every a ∊ G, the elements
mapped into ϕ(a) are precisely the elements of the
left coset a { e} = {a}, which shows that ϕ is one to
one.
Conversely, suppose ϕ is one to one. Now, we know
that ϕ(e)=e', the identity element of G'. Since ϕ is
one to one, we see that e is the only element
mapped into e' by ϕ, so Ker(ϕ)= {e}.

8
Properties of Homomorphisms

Definition
To Show ϕ: G → G' is an
Isomorphism
Step 1 Show ϕ is a
homomorphism.
Step 2 Show Ker(ϕ)=
{e}.
Step 3 Show ϕ maps G
onto G'.

9
Group Theory

Normal Subgroups
 Normal Subgroups

Normal Subgrops
Let G be a group with subgroup H. The right cosets of
H in G are equivalence classes under the relation a ≡
b mod H, defined by ab−1 ∈ H. We can also define the
relation L on G so that a L b if and only if b−1a ∈ H.
This relation, L, is an equivalence relation, and the
equivalence class containing a is the left coset aH =
{ah|h ∈ H}. As the following example shows, the left
coset of an element does not necessarily equal the
right coset.

11
Normal Subgroups

Example
Find the left and right
cosets of H = A3 and K =
{(1), (12)} in S3.

12
 Normal Subgroups

Solution
We calculated the right cosets of H = A3.
Right Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132)}; H(12) = {(12), (13), (23)}
Left Cosets
H = {(1), (123), (132}; (12)H = {(12), (23), (13)}
In this case, the left and right cosets of H are the
same.

13
 Normal Subgroups

However, the left and right cosets of K are not all the
same.
Right Cosets
K = {(1), (12)} ; K(13) = {(13), (132)} ; K(23) = {(23),
(123)}
Left Cosets
K = {(1), (12)};(23)K = {(23), (132)}; (13)K = {(13),
(123)}

14
Group Theory

Normal Subgroups
Normal Subgroups

Definition
A subgroup H of a
group G is called a
normal subgroup of G if
g−1hg ∈ H for all g ∈ G
and h ∈ H.

16
Normal Subgroups

Proposition
Hg = gH, for all g ∈ G, if
and only if H is a normal
subgroup of G.

17
Normal Subgroups

Proof
Suppose that Hg = gH.
Then, for any element h ∈
H, hg ∈ Hg = gH.
Hence hg = gh1 for some
h1 ∈ H and
g−1hg = g−1gh1 = h1 ∈ H.
Therefore, H is a normal
subgroup.
18
 Normal Subgroups

Conversely, if H is normal, let hg ∈ Hg and

g−1hg = h1 ∈ H.
Then hg = gh1 ∈ gH and Hg ⊆ gH.
Also, ghg−1 = (g−1)−1hg−1 = h2 ∈ H, since H is
normal, so gh = h2g ∈ Hg. Hence, gH ⊆ Hg,
and so Hg = gH.

19
Group Theory

Theorem on Normal
Subgroup
Theorem on Normal Subgroup

If N is a normal
subgroup of a group G,
the left cosets of N in G
are the same as the
right cosets of N in G, so
there will be no
ambiguity in just talking
about the cosets of N in
G.
21
Theorem on Normal Subgroup

Theorem
If N is a normal subgroup
of (G, ·), the set of cosets
G/N = {Ng|g ∈ G} forms
a
group (G/N, ·), where the
operation is defined by
(Ng1) · (Ng2) = N(g1 · g2).
This group is called the
quotient group or factor
group of G by N. 22
 Theorem on Normal Subgroup

Proof. The operation of multiplying two cosets, Ng1

and Ng2, is defined in terms of particular elements,
g1 and g2, of the cosets. For this operation to make
sense, we have to verify that, if we choose different
elements, h1 and h2, in the same cosets, the
product coset N(h1 · h2) is the same as
N(g1 · g2). In other words, we have to show that
multiplication of cosets is well defined.

23
 Theorem on Normal Subgroup

Since h1 is in the same coset as g1, we have

h1 ≡ g1 mod N. Similarly, h2 ≡ g2 mod N.
We show that Nh1h2 = Ng1g2.
We have h1g 1−1 = n1 ∈ N and h2g 2−1 = n2 ∈ N, so
h1h2(g1g2)−1 = h1h2g 2−1g 1−1 = n1g1n2g2g2 −1 g 1−1 =
n1g1n2g 1−1.
Now N is a normal subgroup, so g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N and
n1g1n2g 1−1 ∈ N. Hence h1h2 ≡ g1g2 mod N and
Nh1h2 = Ng1g2.
Therefore, the operation is well defined.
 Theorem on Normal Subgroup

• The operation is associative because (Ng1 · Ng2) ·

Ng3 = N(g1g2) · Ng3 = N(g1g2)g3 and also Ng1 · (Ng2 ·
Ng3) = Ng1 · N(g2g3) = Ng1(g2g3) = N(g1g2)g3.
• Since Ng · Ne = Nge = Ng and Ne · Ng = Ng, the
identity is Ne = N.
• The inverse of Ng is Ng−1 because Ng · Ng−1 = N(g ·
g−1) = Ne = N and also Ng−1 · Ng = N.
• Hence (G/N, ·) is a group.

25
Group Theory

Example on Normal
Subgroup
Example on Normal Subgroup

Example
(Zn, +) is the quotient
group of (Z,+) by the
subgroup
nZ = {nz|z ∈ Z}.

27
 Example on Normal Subgroup

Solution
Since (Z,+) is abelian, every subgroup is normal. The
set nZ can be verified to be a subgroup, and the
relationship a ≡ b mod nZ is equivalent to a − b ∈ nZ
and to n|a − b. Hence a ≡ b mod nZ is the same
relation as a ≡ b mod n. Therefore, Zn is the quotient
group Z/nZ, where the operation on congruence
classes is defined by [a] + [b] = [a + b].

28
Example on Normal Subgroup

(Zn,+) is a cyclic group

with 1 as a generator.
When there is no
confusion, we write the
elements of Zn as 0, 1,
2, 3, . . . , n − 1 instead
of [0], [1], [2], [3], . . . ,
[n − 1].

29
Group Theory

Morphism Theorem for

Groups
Morphism Theorem for Groups

Theorem
Let K be the kernel of the
group morphism
f :G → H. Then G/K is
isomorphic to the image
of f, and the isomorphism
ψ: G/K → Im f
is defined by
ψ(Kg) = f(g).

31
 Morphism Theorem for Groups

This result is also known as the first isomorphism

theorem.
Proof. The function ψ is defined on a coset by using
one particular element in the coset, so we have to
check that ψ is well defined;
that is, it does not matter which element we use.

32
Morphism Theorem for Groups

ψ: G/K → Im f, ψ(Kg)=f(g).
If Kg’=Kg, then g’≡g mod K
so g’g−1 = k ∈ K = Ker f.
Hence g’=kg and so
f(g’) = f(kg)
= f(k)f(g)
= eHf(g) = f(g).
Thus ψ is well defined on
cosets.
33
Morphism Theorem for Groups

The function ψ is a
morphism because
ψ(Kg1Kg2)
= ψ(Kg1g2)
= f (g1g2)
= f (g1)f (g2)
= ψ(Kg1)ψ(Kg2).

34
Morphism Theorem for Groups

If ψ(Kg) = eH, then

f (g) = eH and g ∈ K.
Hence the only element
in the kernel of ψ is the
identity coset K, and
ψ is injective.

35
Morphism Theorem for Groups

Finally, Im ψ = Im f, that is,

ψ-1(f(g))=Kg , by the
definition of ψ.
Therefore, ψ is the
required isomorphism
between G/K and Im f.

36
Group Theory

Application of
Morphism Theorem
Application of Morphism Theorem

Example
Show that the quotient
group R/Z is isomorphic
to the circle group
W = {eiθ ∊ C | θ ∊ R }.

38
 Application of Morphism Theorem

Solution
The set W= {eiθ ∊ C | θ ∊ R } consists of points on
the circle of complex numbers of unit modulus, and
forms a group under multiplication.
Define the function f : R → W by f (x) = e2πix.
This is a morphism from (R,+) to (W, ·) because
f (x + y) = e2πi(x+y)
= e2πix · e2πiy
= f (x) · f (y).
39
Application of Morphism Theorem

The morphism f : R → W
is clearly surjective,
and its kernel is

{x ∈ R|e2πix = 1} = Z.
Therefore, the morphism
theorem implies that
R/Z  W.

40