DIGITAL COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

 Lecture 2

Shima Muhammad Qhafor

UHD / College Of Science & Technology
Computer Science Department

1
 DIGITAL
FUNDAMENTALS
Tenth Edition

Floyd

Chapter 2

© 2008 Pearson
Floyd, Digital Fundamentals, 10th ed © 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. l Rights Reserved
Al Education
Content:

• Decimal Numbers
• Binary Numbers
• 1’s Complement
• 1’s Complement
• Signed Binary Numbers
• Floating Point Numbers
• Hexadecimal Numbers
• Octal Numbers
• BCD
• Gray code
• ASCII
• Parity Method
• Cyclic Redundancy Check

3
Decimal Numbers

The position of each digit in a weighted number system is

assigned a weight based on the base or radix of the
system. The radix of decimal numbers is ten, because only
ten symbols (0 through 9) are used to represent any
number.
The column weights of decimal numbers are powers
of ten that increase from right to left beginning with 100 =1:
…105 104 103 102 101 100.
For fractional decimal numbers, the column weights
are negative powers of ten that decrease from left to right:
102 101 100. 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-4 … 4
Decimal Numbers

Decimal numbers can be expressed as the sum of the

products of each digit times the column value for that digit.
Thus, the number 9240 can be expressed as
(9 x 103) + (2 x 102) + (4 x 101) + (0 x 100)
or
9 x 1,000 + 2 x 100 + 4 x 10 + 0 x 1
Express the number 480.52 as the sum of values of
each digit.

480.52 = (4 x 102) + (8 x 101) + (0 x 100) + (5 x 10-1) +(2 x 10-

2) 5
Decimal Numbers

Example:

N = 1234.56710 in the weighted decimal format this will be equal too:

1000 + 200 + 30 + 4  + 0.5 + 0.06 + 0.007 = 1234.56710

or it could be written to reflect the weighting of each denary digit:

(1×1000) + (2×100) + (3×10) + (4×1) + 
(5×0.1) + (6×0.01) + (7×0.001) 
= 1234.56710
or even in polynomial form as:
(1×103) + (2×102) + (3×101) + (4×100)
 + (5×10-1) + (6×10-2) + (7×10-3)
 = 1234.56710 6
Binary Numbers
For digital systems, the binary number system is used.
Binary has a radix of two and uses the digits 0 and 1
to represent quantities.
The column weights of binary numbers are powers of
two that increase from right to left beginning with 20 =1:
…25 24 23 22 21 20.
For fractional binary numbers, the column weights
are negative powers of two that decrease from left to
right:

22 21 20. 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 …

7
 Decimal Binary
Number Number

Binary Numbers 0 000

0
A binary counting sequence for 1 000
numbers from zero to fifteen is shown. 1
42 000110
Notice the pattern of zeros and ones 0
in each column. 53 000110
Digital counters frequently have this 1
6 011
same pattern of digits: 0
Counter 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Decoder
7 011
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
12
8 111000
00
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
13
9 111000
11 8

10
14 1 10 1
0
Binary Conversions

The decimal equivalent of a binary number can be

determined by adding the column values of all of the
that are 1 and discarding all of the bits that are 0.
bits
Convert the binary number 100101.01 to decimal.
Start by writing the column weights; then add
the5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2
2 2 2 2 2 2 .2 2
weights
32 16 8that
4 correspond
2 1 . ½ ¼ to each 1 in the number.
1 0 1 0 1. 0 1
0
32 +4 +1 +¼ = 37¼
9
Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal whole number to binary by

reversing the procedure. Write the decimal weight of each
column and place 1’s in the columns that sum to the decimal
number.
Convert the decimal number 49 to binary.
The column weights double in each position to
the right. Write down column weights until the
last number is larger than the one you want to
convert.26 25 24 23 22 21 20.
64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
0 1 1 0 0 0 1.
10
Binary Conversions

You can convert a decimal fraction to binary by repeatedly

multiplying the fractional results of successive
multiplications by 2. The carries form the binary number.
Convert the decimal fraction 0.188 to binary by
repeatedly multiplying the fractional results by
2.
0.188 x 2 = 0.376 carry = 0 MSB
0.376 x 2 = 0.752 carry = 0
0.752 x 2 = 1.504 carry = 1
0.504 x 2 = 1.008 carry = 1
0.008 x 2 = 0.016 carry = 0
Answer = .00110 (for five significant digits)
11
Binary Conversions

You can convert decimal to any other base by repeatedly dividing by the base.
For binary, repeatedly divide by 2:

 Convert the decimal number 49 to binary by repeatedly dividing

by 2.

 You can do this by “reverse division” and the answer will read from left to
right. Put quotients to the left and remainders on top.

Answer: 1 1 0 0 0 remainder

0 1 1 3 6
12 24 49 2 base

Continue until the Decimal 12

last quotient is 0 Quotient

number
Binary Addition

The rules for binary addition are

0+0=0
0 + 1==0,
Sum 1 carry Sum
= 0 = 1, carry = 0
1+0=0 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
When an input carry = 1 due to a previous result, the
rules
are 1 + 0 + 0 = 01 Sum = 1, carry = 0
1 + 0 + 1 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 0 = 10 Sum = 0, carry = 1
1 + 1 + 1 = 11 Sum = 1, carry = 1

13
Binary Addition

Add the binary numbers 00111 and 10101 and show

the equivalent decimal addition.
0111
00111 7
10101 21
11100 = 28

14
Binary Subtraction
The rules for binary subtraction are
00=0
11=0
10=1

10  1 = 1 with a borrow of 1

Subtract the binary number 00111 from 10101 and

show the equivalent decimal subtraction.

15
1’s Complement

The 1’s complement of a binary number is just the inverse

of the digits. To form the 1’s complement, change all 0’s to
1’s and all 1’s to 0’s.
For example, the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101
In digital circuits, the 1’s complement is formed by using
inverters:
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
16
2’s Complement
The 2’s complement of a binary number is found by
adding 1 to the least significant bit (LSB) of the 1’s
complement.
Recall that the 1’s complement of 11001010 is
00110101 (1’s
To form the 2’s complement, add 1: complement)+1

1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 00110110 (2’s complement)

1

0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
Input bits
Carry
Adder
in (add
Output bits (sum) 1)
00 1 1 0 1
17
1 0
Signed Binary Numbers
There are several ways to represent signed binary numbers.
In all cases, the MSB in a signed number is the sign bit,
that tells you if the number is positive or negative.
Computers use a modified 2’s complement for
signed numbers. Positive numbers are stored in true form
(with a 0 for the sign bit) and negative numbers are
stored in complement form (with a 1 for the sign bit).
For example, the positive number 58 is written
using 8-bits as 00111010 (true form).

Sign bit Magnitude bits

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Signed Binary Numbers
Negative numbers are written as the 2’s complement of the
corresponding positive number.
The negative number 58 is written as:
58 = 11000110 (complement form)
Sign bit Magnitude bits
An easy way to read a signed number that uses this notation is to
assign the sign bit a column weight of 128 (for an 8-bit
number). Then add the column weights for the 1’s.
Assuming that the sign bit = 128, show that 11000110 =
58
as a 2’s complement signed number:
Column weights: 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1.
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
128 +64 +4 +2 = 58
19
 Floating Point Numbers
Floating point notation is capable of representing very
large or small numbers by using a form of scientific
notation. A 32-bit single precision number is
illustrated.
S E (8 bits) F (23 bits)
Sign bit Biased exponent (+127) Magnitude with MSB
dropped
Express the speed of light, c, in single precision floating
point
notation. (c = 0.2998 x 109)
In binary, c = 0001 0001 1101 1110 1001 0101 1100 00002.
In scientific notation, c = 1.001 01101
10011011 001 1101
1110 1001 01011110
11001001 0101
0000 x 21100
28.

S = 0 because the number is positive. E = 28 + 127 = 15510 = 1001 20

10112.
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Using the signed number notation with negative
numbers in 2’s complement form simplifies addition
and subtraction of signed numbers.
Rules for addition: Add the two signed numbers.
Discard any final carries. The result is in signed form.
Examples:
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = 1
00001111 = +15 11101111 = 17 11111000 = 8
00101101 = +45 11111101 = 3 111110111 = 9
Discard carry

21
Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Note that if the number of bits required for the answer
is exceeded, overflow will occur. This occurs only if
both numbers have the same sign. The overflow will be
indicated by an incorrect sign bit.
Two examples are:
0 000000 = +128 10000001 =
1 127
0
10000001
000001 =
= +129
126 Discard carry 10000001 =
100000010 = +2
1 127
Wrong! The answer is
incorrect and the sign bit has
changed. 22
 Arithmetic Operations with Signed Numbers
Rules for subtraction: 2’s complement the subtrahend and
add the numbers. Discard any final carries. The result is
in signed form.
Repeat the examples done previously, but subtract:
00011110 (+30) 11111111 (1)
00001110
 00001111 (+14)
–(+15)  11101111 –(17)  11111000 –
(8)
00011110 = +30 00001110 = +14 11111111 = 1
2’s complement
11110001 = 15subtrahend and=add:
00010001 +17 00001000 = 8
100001111 = +15 00011111 = +31 100000111 = +7
Discard carry Discard carry
23
 Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
Hexadecimal Numbers 0 0
0000
Hexadecimal uses sixteen characters 1 1
to represent numbers: the numbers 0 0001
through 9 and the alphabetic 2 2
characters A through F. 0010
3 3
Large binary number can easily 0011
be converted to hexadecimal by 4 4
grouping bits 4 at a time and writing 0100
the equivalent hexadecimal character. 5 5
0101
Express 1001 0110 0000 11102 in 6 6
hexadecimal: 0110
Group the binary number by 4- 7 7
bits starting from the right. Thus, 0111 24

960E 8 8
1000
 Decimal Hexadecimal Binary
Hexadecimal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Hexadecimal is a weighted number 2 2 0010
system. The column weights are 3 3 0011
powers of 16, which increase from 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
right to left. 6 6 0110
{
Column weights
163 162 161 160.
4096 256 16 1 .
7
8
7
8
0111
1000
9 9 1001
Express 1A2F16 in decimal. 10 A 1010
11 B 1011
Start by writing the column weights: 12 C 1100
4096 256 16 1
13 D 1101
1 A 2 16
14 E 1110
F +2(16) +15(1) = 670310
1(4096) + 10(256) 15 F 1111
25
 Decimal Octal Binary
Octal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Octal uses eight characters the 2 2 0010
numbers 0 through 7 to represent 3 3 0011
numbers. 4 4 0100
There is no 8 or 9 character in octal. 5 5 0101
6 6 0110
Binary number can easily be 7 7 0111
converted to octal by grouping bits 3 8 10 1000
at a time and writing the equivalent 9 11 1001
octal character 10 12 1010
Express 1for each
001 011 group.
000 001 1102 in
11 13 1011
octal:
12 14 1100
Group the binary number by 3-bits 13 15 1101
starting from the right. Thus, 1130168 14 16 1110
15 17 1111
26
 Decimal Octal Binary
Octal Numbers 0 0 0000
1 1 0001
Octal is also a weighted number 2 2 0010
system. The column weights are 3 3 0011
powers of 8, which increase from right 4 4 0100
5 5 0101
to left. 6 6 0110
{
Column weights
83
512 64
82 81
8
80 .
1 .
7
8
7
10
0111
1000
9 11 1001
Express 37028 in decimal. 10 12 1010
11 13 1011
Start by writing the column weights: 12 14 1100
512 64 8 1
13 15 1101
3 7 0 28
14 16 1110
3(512) + 7(64) +0(8) +2(1) = 198610 15 17 1111 27
 Decimal Binary BCD
BCD 0 0000
0000 0001
Binary coded decimal (BCD) is a 1 0010
weighted code that is commonly 0001 0011
used in digital systems when it is 2
4 0100
0010
0100 0101
necessary to show decimal 5
3 0011 0110
numbers such as in clock displays. 0101 0111
The table illustrates the 6 0110 1000
difference between straight binary 7 0111 1001
and BCD. BCD represents each 8 1000 00010000
digit with a 4-bit code. Notice that the
decimal 11
9 00010001
codes 1010 through 1111 are not used in 1011
1001 00010010
BCD. 12
10 00010011
1100
1010 00010100
13 0001010128
1101
14 1110
BCD

You can think of BCD in terms of column weights in

groups of four bits. For an 8-bit BCD number, the column
weights are: 80 40 20 10 8 4 2 1.
What are the column weights for the BCD
number 1000 0011 0101 1001?

8000 4000 2000 1000 800 400 200 100 80 40 20 10 8

4 2
1
Note that you could add the column weights where there is
a 1 to obtain the decimal number. For this case:
29
8000 + 200 +100 + 40 + 10 + 8 +1 = 835910
BCD
A lab experiment in which BCD
is converted to decimal is
shown.

30
 Decimal Binary Gray code
Gray code 0 0000
0000 0001
Gray code is an unweighted code 1 0011
that has a single bit change 0001 0010
one code word and the next in a
between 2
4 0110
0010
0100 0111
sequence. Gray code is used to 5
3 0011 0101
avoid problems in systems where an 0101 0100
error can occur if more than one bit 6 0110 1100
changes at a time. 7 0111 1101
8 1000 1111
11
9 1110
1011
1001 1010
12
10 1011
1100
1010 1001
13 1000 31
1101
14 1110
Gray code
A shaft encoder is a typical application. Three IR
emitter/detectors are used to encode the position of the shaft.
The encoder on the left uses binary and can have three bits
change together, creating a potential error. The encoder on
the right uses gray code and only 1-bit changes, eliminating
potential errors.

Binary sequence
Gray code sequence

32
ASCII

ASCII is a code for alphanumeric characters and control

characters. In its original form, ASCII encoded 128
characters and symbols using 7-bits. The first 32
characters are control characters, that are based on
obsolete teletype requirements, so these characters are
generally assigned to other functions in modern usage.

In 1981, IBM introduced extended ASCII, which is an

8- bit code and increased the character set to 256. Other
extended sets (such as Unicode) have been introduced
to handle characters in languages other than English.
33
Parity Method
The parity method is a method of error detection for
simple transmission errors involving one bit (or an odd
number of bits). A parity bit is an “extra” bit attached
to a group of bits to force the number of 1’s to be
either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
The ASCII character for “a” is 1100001 and for “A” is
1000001. What is the correct bit to append to make both
of these have odd parity?
The ASCII “a” has an odd number of bits that are equal to 1;
therefore the parity bit is 0. The ASCII “A” has an even
number of bits that are equal to 1; therefore the parity bit is
1.
34
Cyclic Redundancy Check
The cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is an error detection method
that can detect multiple errors in larger blocks of data. At the
sending end, a checksum is appended to a block of data. At the
receiving end, the check sum is generated and compared to the
sent checksum. If the check sums are the same, no error is
detected.

35
 SELECTED KEY TERMS

Byte A group of eight bits

Floating-point A number representation based on
numb scientific notation in which the number
er consists of an exponent and a mantissa.
Hexadecimal A number system with a base of 16.
Octal A number system with a base of 8.
BCD Binary coded decimal; a digital code in which each
of the decimal digits, 0 through 9, is represented
by a group of four bits.

36
 SELECTED KEY TERMS

Alphanumeric Consisting of numerals, letters, and

other characters
ASCII American Standard Code for Information
Interchange; the most widely used alphanumeric
code.
Parity In relation to binary codes, the condition of
evenness or oddness in the number of 1s in a code
group.
Cyclic A type of error detection code.
redundancy
check (CRC) 37
1. For the binary number 1000, the weight of the column
with the 1 is
a. 4
b. 6
c. 8
d. 10

38
2. The 2’s complement of 1000 is
a. 0111
b. 1000
c. 1001
d. 1010

39
3. THE FRACTIONAL BINARY NUMBER 0.11 HAS A
DECIMAL VALUE OF
a. ¼
b. ½
c. ¾
d. none of the above

40
4. The hexadecimal number 2C has a decimal equivalent
value of
a. 14
b. 44
c. 64
d. none of the above

41
5. Assume that a floating point number is represented
in
binary. If the sign bit is 1, the
a. number is negative
b. number is positive
c. exponent is negative
d. exponent is positive

42
6.When two positive signed numbers are added, the result
may be larger that the size of the original numbers,
creating overflow. This condition is indicated by
a. a change in the sign bit
b. a carry out of the sign position
c. a zero result
d. smoke

43
7. The number 1010 in BCD is
a. equal to decimal eight
b. equal to decimal ten
c. equal to decimal twelve
d. invalid

44
8. An example of an unweighted code is
a. binary
b. decimal
c. BCD
d. Gray code

45
9. An example of an alphanumeric code is
a. hexadecimal
b. ASCII
c. BCD
d. CRC

46
10. An example of an error detection method for
transmitted data is the
a. parity check
b. CRC
c. both of the above
d. none of the above

47
Answers:

1. c 6. a

2. b 7. d

3. c 8. d

4. b 9. b

5. a 10.
48
c
? 49