Computer

Organization
and
C++ Programming
 Overview

 Computer Systems (1.1)

 Programming and Problem Solving (1.2)

 Introduction to C++ (1.3)

 Testing and Debugging (1.4)

 Computer Systems

• A computer program is…

• A set of instructions for a computer to follow
• Computer software is …
• The collection of programs used by a computer
• Includes:
• Editors
• Translators
• System Managers
 Hardware

• Three main classes of computers

• PCs (Personal Computer)
• Relatively small used by one person at a time

• Workstation
• Larger and more powerful than a PC

• Mainframe
• Still larger
• Requires support staff
• Shared by multiple users
 Networks
• A number of computers connected to
share resources
• Share printers and other devices
• Share information
 Computer Organization
Display 1.1

• Five main components

• Input devices
Allows communication to the computer
• Output devices
Allows communication to the user
• Processor (CPU)
• Main memory
Memory locations containing the running program
• Secondary memory
Permanent record of data often on a disk
 Computer Memory

• Main Memory
Long list of memory locations
Each contains zeros and ones
Can change during program execution
• Binary Digit or Bit
A digit that can only be zero or one
• Byte
Each memory location has eight bits
• Address
Number that identifies a memory location
 Larger Data Items
• Some data is too large for a single byte
• Most integers and real numbers are too large
• Address refers to the first byte
• Next few consecutive bytes can store the additional
bits for larger data

Display 1.2
 Data or Code?
• ‘A’ may look like 01000001
• 65 may look like 01000001
• An instruction may look like 01000001
• How does the computer know the meaning
of 01000001?
• Interpretation depends on the current instruction

• Programmers rarely need to be concerned with

this problem.
• Reason as if memory locations contain letters and
numbers rather than zeroes and ones
 Secondary Memory
• Main memory stores instructions and
data while a program is running.
• Secondary memory
• Stores instructions and data between sessions
• A file stores data or instructions in
secondary memory
Secondary Memory Media
• A computer might have any of these
types of secondary memory
• Hard disk
• Fast
• Fixed in the computer and not normally removed
• Floppy disk
• Slow
• Easily shared with other computers
• Compact disk
• Slower than hard disks
• Easily shared with other computers
• Can be read only or re-writable
 Memory Access
• Random Access
• Usually called RAM
• Computer can directly access any memory location

• Sequential Access
• Data is generally found by searching through
other items first
• More common in secondary memory
 The Processor
• Typically called the CPU
• Central Processing Unit
• Follows program instructions
• Typical capabilities of CPU include:
add
subtract
multiply
divide
move data from location to location
 Computer Software
• The operating system
• Allows us to communicate with the computer
• Is a program
• Allocates the computer’s resources
• Responds to user requests to run other programs

• Common operating systems include…

• UNIX Linux DOS
Windows Macintosh VMS
 Computer Input

• Computer input consists of

• A program
• Some data

Display 1.3
 High-level Languages
• Common programming languages include …
C C++ Java Pascal Visual Basic FORTRAN
COBOL Lisp Scheme Ada

• These high – level languages

• Resemble human languages
• Are designed to be easy to read and write
• Use more complicated instructions than
the CPU can follow
• Must be translated to zeros and ones for the CPU
to execute a program
 Low-level Languages
• An assembly language command such as
ADD X Y Z
might mean add the values found at x and y
in memory, and store the result in location z.

• Assembly language must be translated to

machine language (zeros and ones)
0110 1001 1010 1011
• The CPU can follow machine language
 Compilers

• Translate high-level language to

machine language

• Source code
• the original program in a high level language
• Object code
• the translated version in machine language
Display 1.4
 Linkers
• Some programs we use are already compiled
• Their object code is available for us to use
• For example: Input and output routines

• A Linker combines
• The object code for the programs we write
and
• The object code for the pre-compiled routines
into
The machine language program the CPU can run

Display 1.5
 History Note
• First programmable computer
• Designed by Charles Babbage
• Began work in 1822
• Not completed in Babbage’s life time

• First programmer
• Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace
• Colleague of Babbage
 Programming
and Problem Solving
• Algorithm
• A sequence of precise instructions which
leads to a solution

• Program
• An algorithm expressed in a language the computer
can understand

Display 1.6
 Program Design

• Programming is a creative process

• No complete set of rules for creating a program

• Program Design Process

• Problem Solving Phase
• Result is an algorithm that solves the problem

• Implementation Phase
• Result is the algorithm translated into a programming
language
 Problem Solving Phase

• Be certain the task is completely specified

• What is the input?
• What information is in the output?
• How is the output organized?

• Develop the algorithm before implementation

• Experience shows this saves time in getting your
program to run.
• Test the algorithm for correctness
 Implementation Phase
• Translate the algorithm into a programming
language
• Easier as you gain experience with the language

• Compile the source code

• Locates errors in using the programming language

• Run the program on sample data

• Verify correctness of results

• Results may require modification of

the algorithm and program
Display 1.7
 Object Oriented Programming
• Abbreviated OOP
• Used for many modern programs
• Program is viewed as interacting objects
• Each object contains algorithms to describe its behavior
• Program design phase involves designing objects and
their algorithms
 OOP Characteristics
• Encapsulation
• Information hiding
• Objects contain their own data and algorithms

• Inheritance
• Writing reusable code
• Objects can inherit characteristics from other objects

• Polymorphism
• A single name can have multiple meanings depending
on its context
 Software Life Cycle

1. Analysis and specification of the task

(problem definition)
2. Design of the software
(object and algorithm design)
3. Implementation (coding)
4. Maintenance and evolution of the system
5. Obsolescence
 1.3

Introduction to C++
• Where did C++ come from?
• Derived from the C language
• C was derived from the B language
• B was derived from the BCPL language

• Why the ‘++’?

• ++ is an operator in C++ and results in a cute pun
 C++ History

• C developed by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T

Bell Labs in the 1970s.
• Used to maintain UNIX systems
• Many commercial applications written in c
• C++ developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at AT&T
Bell Labs in the 1980s.
• Overcame several shortcomings of C
• Incorporated object oriented programming
• C remains a subset of C++
 A Sample C++ Program
• A simple C++ program begins this way
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{

• And ends this way

Display 1.8
return 0;
}
 Explanation of code (1/5)

• Variable declaration line

int number_of_pods, peas_per_pod, total_peas;

• Identifies names of three variables to name numbers

• int means that the variables represent integers
 Explanation of code (2/5)
Program statement
cout << “Press return after entering a number.\n”;

• cout (see-out) used for output to the monitor

• “<<“ inserts “Press…a number.\n” in the data

bound for the monitor

• Think of cout as a name for the monitor

• “<<“ points to where the data is to end up

• ‘\n’ causes a new line to be started on the monitor

 Explanation of code (3/5)
• Program statement
cin >> number_of_pods;

• cin (see-in) used for input from the keyboard

• “>>” extracts data from the keyboard

• Think of cin as a name for the keyboard

• “>>” points from the keyboard to a variable where the data is
stored
 Explanation of code (4/5)

•Program statement
total_peas = number_of_pods * peas_per_pod;

• Performs a computation
• ‘*’ is used for multiplication
• ‘=‘ causes total_peas to get a new value based on
the calculation shown on the right of the equal sign
 Explanation of code (5/5)

• Program statement
cout << number_of_pods;

• Sends the value of variable number_of_pods to

the monitor
 Program Layout (1/3)

• Compiler accepts almost any pattern of line

breaks and indentation
• Programmers format programs so they
are easy to read
• Place opening brace ‘{‘ and closing brace ‘}’
on a line by themselves
• Indent statements
• Use only one statement per line
 Program Layout (2/3)
• Variables are declared before they are used
• Typically variables are declared at the beginning of
the program
• Statements (not always lines) end with a semi-colon

• Include Directives
#include <iostream>
• Tells compiler where to find information about items
used in the program
• iostream is a library containing definitions of cin and cout
 Program Layout (3/3)
using namespace std;
• Tells the compiler to use names in iostream in
a “standard” way

• To begin the main function of the program

int main()
{
• To end the main function
return 0;
}
• Main function ends with a return statement
 Running a C++ Program

• C++ source code is written with a text

editor

• The compiler on your system converts

source code to object code.

• The linker combines all the object code

into an executable program.
 Run a Program

• Obtain code in Display 1.10

• Compile the code
• Fix any errors the compiler indicates and
re-compile the code
• Run the program
• Now you know how to run a program on
your system

Display 1.10
 Testing and Debugging

• Bug
• A mistake in a program

• Debugging
• Eliminating mistakes in programs
• Term used when a moth caused a failed relay
on the Harvard Mark 1 computer. Grace Hopper
and other programmers taped the moth in logbook
stating:
“First actual case of a bug being found.”
 Program Errors

• Syntax errors
• Violation of the grammar rules of the language
• Discovered by the compiler
• Error messages may not always show correct location of
errors

• Run-time errors
• Error conditions detected by the computer at run-time
• Logic errors
• Errors in the program’s algorithm
• Most difficult to diagnose
• Computer does not recognize an error
End…
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