Lecture 6

Geometric Design of Highways

By: Daba S. Gedafa, Ph.D., P.E., ENV SP

 INTRODUCTION
 The objective is to design highways that are safe for wide
variety of vehicle and human performance

 Design elements:
 Number of lanes, lane width, median type (if any) and width,
length of acceleration and deceleration lanes for on-and-off
ramps, truck climbing lanes, curve radii, and the alignment
providing adequate stopping and passing sight distances
 Are influenced by the vehicle performance and physical
dimensions

 Design guides evolve over time as vehicle performance

improves
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 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Highway Alignment in Three-dimensions

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 3

PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT (Continued)
Highway Alignment in Two-dimensional Views

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 Highway Alignment Problem
 Further simplified by using highway position and length
instead of x and y
 Distances are measured in terms of stations, with each
station consisting of 100 ft
 Example: a point 4250 ft from a specified origin is said to be
at station 42 + 50, with the point of origin at station 0 + 00

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 5

 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 Specifies the elevations of points along a roadway

 Elevations are determined by the need to provide:

 proper drainage
 driver safety and comfort

 A primary concern of vertical alignment is to establish a

transition between two roadway grades by means of a
vertical curve

 Two types of vertical curves:

 Crest
 Sag

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Equal Tangent Vertical Curves

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 Vertical Curve Properties
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or ft/ft (also known as
the initial tangent grade, viewing from left to right),
G2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or ft/ft,
A= absolute value of the difference in grades (initial minus
final, usually expressed in percent),
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and
final grades),
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the
vertical curve (the point where the curve returns to the final
grade or, equivalently, the final tangent), and
L= length of the curve in stations or ft measured in a
constant- elevation horizontal plane.
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 8
 Vertical Curve Design
 Vertical curves’ maximum grades depend on:
 design speed
 terrain
 functional classification
 length of grade

Maximum Grade Determination

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 9

 Vertical Curve Fundamentals
 The general form of the parabolic equation, as applied to
vertical curves, is

y = ax 2 + bx + c (3.1)
y = roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the
vertical curve (the PVC) in stations or ft,
x = distance from the beginning of the vertical curve in stations
or ft
a, b = coefficients defined below, and
c = elevation of the PVC (because x = 0 corresponds to the
PVC) in ft.

dy
 First derivative gives slope:  2ax  b (3.2)
dx
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 10
 Vertical Curve Fundamentals (Continued)
 At the PVC, x = 0, so, using Eq. 3.2

dy
b = = G1 (3.3)
dx
 Second derivative gives rate of change of slope :
2
d y
2
 2a (3.4)
dx
 The average rate of change of slope, by observation, can
also be written as:

d 2 y  G2  G1 
2
 (3.5)
dx L

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 11

 Vertical Curve Fundamentals (Continued)
 Equating Eqs. 3.4 and 3.5 gives:

a
 G2  G1  (3.6)
2L
 Note: watch for the units of “a” and “b”

 Sometimes curve must be designed so that the elevation of

a specific location is met:
 to connect a roadway with another
 to have roadway at some specified elevation to pass under
another roadway

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 12

 Offsets
 Are vertical distances from initial tangent to the curve

 Are very important in vertical curve design and

construction

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 Offsets (Continued)
G1 = initial roadway grade in percent or ft/ft (this grade is also referred
to as the initial tangent grade, viewing Fig. 3.4 from left to right),
G2 = final roadway (tangent) grade in percent or ft/ft,
PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the curve),
PVI = point of vertical intersection (intersection of initial and final
grades),
PVT = point of vertical tangent, which is the final point of the vertical
curve (the point where the curve returns to the final grade or, equivalently,
the final tangent),
L= length of the curve in stations or ft measured in a constant- elevation
horizontal plane,
x= distance from the PVC in ft,
Y= offset at any distance x from the PVC in ft,
Ym = midcurve offset in ft, and
Yf = offset at the end of the vertical curve in ft.

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 14

 Offset Formulas
 For an equal tangent parabola , offset at any distance, x,
from the PVC:
A 2
Y x (3.7)
200 L
 Offset at the curve midpoint:
AL
Ym  (3.8)
800

 Offset at the end

AL of the curve:
Yf  (3.9)
200
Note: 200 is used in the denominator instead of 2 because A is
expressed in percent instead of ft/ft
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 15
 Example 3.1
 A 520-ft-long equal-tangent crest vertical curve connects
tangents that intersect at station 340 + 00 and elevation
1325 ft. The initial grade is +4.0%, and the final grade is
-2.5%. Determine the elevation and stationing of the high
point, PVC, and PVT.

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 16

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 ‘K’ Values

The
  rate of change of grade at successive points on the
curve:
 is a constant amount for equal increments of horizontal
distance, and
 equals the algebraic difference between intersecting tangent
grades divided by the length of curve, or A/L in percent per ft

 The reciprocal L/A is:

 the horizontal distance required to effect a 1% change in
gradient
 a measure of curvature

 K-value:
(3.10)

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 20

 ‘K’ Values (Continued)
 The K-value can be used directly to compute the high/low
points for crest/sag vertical curves from PVC , given that
high/low point is not at a curve end,

xhl = K  G1 (3.11)

xhl = distance from the PVC to the high/low point in ft,

K = value that is the horizontal distance, in ft, required to
affect a 1% change in the slope of the vertical curve, and
G1 = initial grade in percent.
 K-values also have important applications in the design of
vertical curves

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 21

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
 It is necessary to provide adequate stopping-sight distance
(SSD) when designing vertical curves

 Because curve construction is expensive, it is cost-effective

to minimize curve length, subject to adequate SSD

 SSD is the summation of the vehicle SSD and the distance

travelled during PRT
V12
SSD   V1  t r (3.12)
 a  
2 g     G 
 g  
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 22
 Design Speed
 Is the maximum safe speed at which a highway can be
negotiated assuming near worst case conditions (wet-
weather conditions)

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 23

Stopping Sight Distance Using Eq. 3.12 assuming G = 0

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 SSD and Crest Vertical Curve Design
 Two different factors are important for crest vertical curves:
 the driver’s eye height in vehicle, H1
 height of a roadway obstruction object, H2

S= sight distance in ft,

H1 = height of driver’s eye above roadway surface in ft,
H2 = height of object above roadway surface in ft,

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 25

 Minimum Curve Length
 By using the properties of a parabola for an equal tangent
curve, it can be shown that the minimum length of curve,
Lm, for a required SSD is:

A  SSD 2
Lm  for SSD  L (3.13)

200 H1  H 2  2

Lm  2  SSD 

200 H1  H 2  2

for SSD  L (3.14)

A

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 26

 Minimum Curve Length (Continued)
 For the sight distance required to provide adequate SSD,
current AASHTO design standards use the following
specifications:
 H1 (driver’s eye height) = 3.5 ft
 H2 (object height) = 2.0 ft

 For SSD < L:

A  SSD 2
Lm  (3.15)
2158
 For SSD > L:
2158
Lm  2  SSD  (3.16)
A
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 27
 Minimum Curve Length Using K-value
 If the assumption L>SSD is made,

AS 2 S2
Lm   KA with K 
   
2 2
200 H1  H 2 200 H1  H 2

 With S = SSD, H1 = 3.5 and H2 = 2.0

SSD 2 SSD 2
K 
 
2
200 3.5  2.0 2158

SSD 2
K (3.18)
2158
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 28
 Justification for the Assumption of L>SSD
 Assuming SSD > L instead of L>SSD results in two
complications:
 If SSD > L the relationship between A and Lm is not linear so
K-values cannot be used in the L = KA formula (Eq. 3.10)
 At low values of A, it is possible to get negative minimum
curve lengths (Eq. 3.16).

 L > SSD (upon which Eqs. 3.17 and 3.18 are made) is a better
assumption since in many cases:
 L is greater than SSD and
 when it is not (SSD > L), the use of the L > SSD formula
(Eq. 3.15 instead of Eq. 3.16) gives longer curve lengths and
thus the error is on the conservative, safe side
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 29
Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on Stopping Sight Distance

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 Notes about K-values Table
 In this table, K-values assume G = 0 for SSD calculations
 If specific grade needs to be accounted for, SSD should be
computed directly
 Difficult to get exact effect of grade unless you know exactly
where on the curve the brakes were applied
 Assuming initial or final could be too conservative or too risky
 Practices vary, but most agencies do not correct if G < 3%,
then may add a fixed-distance correction

 On downgrades, for which more stopping distance is

required, more sight distance is generally available

 On upgrades, for which less sight distance is available, less

stopping distance is required
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 31
 Minimum Curve Lengths
 Short vertical curves can be difficult to construct and
unsafe

 Minimum length:
 100 to 325 ft depending on individual jurisdictional guidelines
or
 3 times the design speed (with speed in mph and length in
feet)

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 32

 Example 3.2
 A 1200-ft equal-tangent crest vertical curve is currently
designed for 50 mi/h. A civil engineering student
contends that 60 mi/h is safe in a van because of a higher
driver’s-eye height. If all other design inputs are standard,
how high must the driver’s-eye height (in the van) be for
the student’s claim to be valid?

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 33

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Stopping Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
 Since SSD is unrestricted on sag curves during daylight
hours, nighttime conditions govern design

 Critical concern for sag curves is the headlight sight

distance (i.e., the length of road illuminated by the
vehicle’s headlights)

 Length of road illuminated by the vehicle’s headlights is a

function of:
 the height of the headlight above the roadway, H, and
 the inclined upward angle of the headlight beam, relative to
the horizontal plane of the car, b

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 35

Stopping Sight Distance Considerations for Sag Vertical Curves

H= height of headlight in ft
= inclined angle of headlight beam in degrees

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 36

 Minimum Curve Length
 Expressions for determining the minimum length of sag
curve required for adequate SSD:
A  SSD 2 (3.19)
Lm  for SSD  L
200 H  SSD tan  

200 H  SSD tan   (3.20)

Lm  2  SSD  for SSD  L
A

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 37

 Minimum Curve Length (Continued)
 For the sight distance required to provide adequate SSD,
current AASHTO design standards use the following
specifications:
 H (headlight height) = 2.0 ft
  (headlight angle) = 1°

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 38

 Minimum Curve Length (Continued)
 Substituting these values into the previous two equations
yields:
 For SSD < L:
A  SSD 2
Lm  (3.21)
400 + 3.5  SSD

 For SSD > L:

400 + 3.5  SSD
Lm  2  SSD  (3.22)
A

 Note: If not sure which equation to use, assume SSD < L

first (for either sag or crest curves)

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 39

 Minimum Curve Length with K-value
 K-values can be computed by assuming L > SSD, which
gives us the linear relationship between Lm and A as shown
in Eq. 3.21.

SSD 2
K (3.23)
400 + 3.5 SSD

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 40

Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves Based on SSD

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 PSD and Crest Vertical Curve Design
 In two-lane highway design it is sometimes desirable to
provide adequate passing sight distance (PSD) on a vertical
curve

 PSD:
 is an issue on crest vertical curves
 the view is unobstructed on sag curves, and at night motorists
can see the headlights of oncoming vehicles

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 42

 PSD and Crest Vertical Curve Design (Continued)
Equations 3.13 and 3.14 apply for PSD:
 H1 remains at 3.5 ft,
 H2 is also set to 3.5 ft – height of oncoming car

For PSD < L:

A  PSD 2
Lm  (3.24)
2800
 For PSD > L:
2800
Lm  2  PSD  (3.25)
A

 Assuming L > PSD: PSD 2

K (3.26)
2800
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 43
 PSD Components
PSD used for design is assumed to consist of four distances:
 the initial maneuver distance (which includes drivers' PRT and the
time it takes to bring the vehicle from its trailing speed to the point
of encroachment on the left lane),
 the distance that the passing vehicle traverses while occupying the
left lane,
 the clearance length between the passing and opposing vehicles at
the end of the passing maneuver, and
 the distance traversed by an opposing vehicle during two-thirds of
the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane

Determination of these distances takes into account :

 vehicle acceleration
 speeds of passing, passed, and opposing vehicles

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 44

Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves Based on PSD

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 45

Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design
 A structure passing over a sag curve may block a driver’s
line-of-sight over the full length of the curve

H1 = height of driver’s eye in ft,

H2 = height of object in ft, and
Hc = clearance height of overpass structure above roadway in ft.
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 46
 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design (Continued)
 Minimum length of sag curve for a required sight distance
and clearance height is:

 For S < L:
AS 2
Lm 
  H  H2  (3.27)
800 H c   1 
  2 
 For S > L:
  H  H2 
800 H c   1 
  2  (3.28)
Lm  2 S 
A

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 47

 Underpass Sight Distance and Sag Vertical Curve Design (Continued)
AASHTO guide:
 a driver eye height, H1, of 8 ft for a truck driver,
 an object height, H2, of 2 ft for the taillights of a vehicle

Substituting these values for H1 and H2, and S = SSD into Eqs. 3.27 and 3.28 gives

 For SSD < L:

A  SSD 2
L (3.29)
800 H c  5

 For SSD < L: 800 H c  5

L  2  SSD  (3.30)
A

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 48

 Clearance Height
 Minimum clearance: 14.5 ft

 Desirable clearance: 16.5 ft

 Must be at least 1 ft greater than the maximum allowable

vehicle height

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 49

 Example 3.3
 An overpass is being built over the PVI of an existing equal-
tangent sag curve. The sag curve has a 70-mi/h design
speed, and G1 = -5%, G2 = +3%. Determine the minimum
necessary clearance height of the overpass, and the
resultant elevation of the bottom of the overpass over the
PVI. (Ignore the cross-sectional width of the overpass.)

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 50

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 51
 Example 3.4
 Due to crashes at a railroad crossing, an overpass (with a
roadway surface 26 ft above the existing road) is to be
constructed on an existing level highway. The existing
highway has a design speed of 50 mi/h. The overpass
structure is to be level, centered above the railroad, and 180
ft long. What length of the existing level highway must be
reconstructed to provide an appropriate vertical
alignment?

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 52

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 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
 The critical design feature of horizontal alignment is the
horizontal curve that transitions the roadway between two
straight (tangent) sections

 Vehicle cornering capability is a key concern in horizontal

curve design

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 55

Vehicle Cornering Forces

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 56

 Vehicle Cornering
Rv = radius defined to the vehicle’s traveled path in ft,
= angle of incline in degrees,
e = number of vertical ft of rise per 100 ft of horizontal distance,
W = weight of the vehicle in lb,
Wn = vehicle weight normal to the roadway surface in lb,
Wp = vehicle weight parallel to the roadway surface in lb,
Ff = side frictional force (centripetal, in lb),
Fc = centripetal force (lateral acceleration x mass, in lb),
Fcp = centripetal force acting parallel to the roadway surface
in lb, and
Fcn = centripetal force acting normal to the roadway surface
in lb.

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 57

 Vehicle Cornering
 Some basic horizontal curve relationships can be derived
by noting that:

Wp + Ff = Fcp (3.31)

 From basic physics this equation can be written as

[with Ff = fs(Wn + Fcn)]:

 WV 2  WV 2
W sin   f s W cos   sin    cos  (3.32)
 gRv  gRv

fs is the coefficient of side friction

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 58

 Vehicle Cornering (Continued)
 Dividing both sides of the Eq. 3.32 by Wcos  yields:

V2
tan   f s  1  f s tan   (3.33)
gRv
 The term tan  is referred to as the superelevation of the curve
and is denoted e (e = 100 tan )

 Being conservative and ignoring the normal component of

centripetal force (fs tan ), and with e = 100 tan , the above
equation can be rearranged as:
V2
Rv 
e (3.34)
g( fs  )
100
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 59
 Minimum Radius
 Selected value of e is critical since:
 high rates of superelevation can cause vehicle steering
problems on the horizontal curve, and
 in cold climates, ice on the roadway can reduce fs such that
vehicles traveling less than the design speed on an excessively
superelevated curve could slide inward off the curve by
gravitational forces

 Selecting a superelevation, e, a design speed, V, and using

maximum side friction, fs, a minimum radius is obtained

 Table 3.5 gives AASHTO guidelines for selecting values of e

and fs or use
fs = 0.190 – V/1000 for V ≤ 50 mi/h

or fs = 0.140 – 2(V – 50 )/1000 for V > 50

mi/h
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 60
Minimum Radius Using Limiting Values of e and fs

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 61

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 Curve Options
 There are a few options available for curve types to connect
tangent sections:
 Simple circular curve-the focus of the course
 Reverse curves
 Compound curve
 Spiral curve

 The circular curve has a single, constant radius since it is

fundamental to horizontal curve design

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 64

Elements of a Simple Circular Horizontal Curve

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 65

 Simple Circular Horizontal Curve Elements
R= radius, usually measured to the centerline of the
road, in ft,
= central angle of the curve in degrees,
PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the
horizontal curve),
PI = point of tangent intersection,
PT = point of tangent (the ending point of the
horizontal curve),
T= tangent length in ft,
M = middle ordinate in ft,
E= external distance in ft, and
L= length of curve in ft.

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 66

 Degree of a Curve
 Is the angle subtended by a 100-ft arc along the horizontal
curve

 Used to measure the sharpness of the curve

 The degree of curve is directly related to the radius of the

horizontal curve by:
 180 
100 
 π  18000
D= = (3.35)
R πR

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 67

 Circular Curve Formulas
Geometric and trigonometric analyses of Fig. 3.13 reveal the
following relationships:

T  R tan (3.36)
2

 1 
E  R  1 (3.37)
 cos(  / 2) 

 
M  R1  cos  (3.38)
 2


L R (3.39)
180

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 68

 Example 3.5
 A horizontal curve is being designed for a new two-lane
highway (12-ft lanes). The PI is at station 250 + 50, design
speed is 65 mi/h, and a maximum superelevation of 0.07
ft/ft is to be used. If the central angle of the curve is 38
degrees, design a curve for the highway by computing the
radius and stationing of the PC and PT?

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 69

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 SSD and Horizontal Curve Design
 Sight distance restrictions on horizontal curves occur when
obstructions are present

 When such an obstruction exists, the SSD is measured

along the horizontal curve from the center of the
traveled lane (the assumed location of the driver’s eyes)

 For a specified SSD, some distance, Ms, must be visually

cleared so that the line of sight is such that sufficient SSD is
available

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 72

 SSD Considerations for Horizontal Curves

R = Rv only for single-lane ramps

Ms= the middle ordinate of a curve that has an arc length equal to
the stopping sight distance
Rv = radius measured to the path of vehicle travel (middle
of innermost lane).
CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 73
 SSD and Horizontal Curve Design (Continued)
 Equations for computing SSD relationships for horizontal
curves can be derived by first determining the central
angle, s, for an arc equal to the required SSD

 Assuming that the length of the horizontal curve exceeds

the required SSD, the following set of equations can be
used:

 180 SSD
SSD  Rv  s ® s  (3.41)
180 Rv

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 74

 SSD and Horizontal Curve Design (Continued)
 Substituting into the general equation for the middle ordinate
of a simple horizontal curve (Eq. 3.38) gives:

 90  SSD 
M s  Rv 1  cos  (3.42)
 R v 

 Solving Eq. 3.42 for SSD gives:

R v  1  Rv  M s 
SSD  cos   (3.43)
90   Rv 

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 75

 PSD on Horizontal Curve
 Note: Eqs. 3.40 to 3.43 can also be applied directly to
determine sight distance requirements for passing (PSD)

 For a particular design speed, the distance value in Table

3.4 would apply, and PSD will replace SSD in the equations
(3.40 to 3.43)

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 76

 Example 3.6
 You are asked to design a horizontal curve for a two-lane
road. The road has 12-ft lanes. Due to expensive
excavation, it is determined that a maximum of 34 ft can be
cleared from the road’s centerline toward the inside lane to
provide for SSD. Also, local guidelines dictate a maximum
superelevation of 0.08 ft/ft. What is the highest possible
design speed for this curve?

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 77

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 Thank You
Questions?

CE 416: L6-Geometric Design of Highways 80