ENERGY ENGINEERING

(Ch.E-308)

B.Sc. Chemical Engineering

Session 2018

Delivered by:
Mr. Rizwan Ali

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore
Significance of the Constituents of
Coal
Total Carbon
• It means the fixed carbon plus the carbon present in
the volatile matters e.g. in CO, CO2, CH4,
hydrocarbons etc.

• Total carbon is always more than fixed carbon in any

coal.

• High total carbon containing coal will have higher

calorific value.
Hydrogen
• It increases the calorific value of the coal.

• It is associated with the volatile matter of the coal.

• Also, the percentage of NH3 in the coke even gas is

more ; if the coal from which it has come out contains
more H2.

 This NH3 is recovered as (NH4)2SO4 (by reacting

NH3with H2SO4) which is a valuable fertilizer.
…Continued
• Part of the hydrogen of coal remains as such in the
coke oven gas thereby increasing its calorific value.

• The content of hydrogen-in coals from the peat to

the bituminous stage varies between 4.5 and 6.5%
and is not related to the rank.

• Beyond the bituminous stage, the content

sharply decreases to a value of 1-2% in anthracites.
Nitrogen
• The nitrogen in coal is present up to 1-3% and comes from the
proteinous matter present in vegetable matter.

• Presence of inert nitrogen decreases the calorific value of the coal.

• However, when coal is carbonized (i.e. heated in absence of air),

its nitrogen and hydrogen that combine thereby producing NH 3
which is recovered as (NH4)2SO4, a valuable fertilizer.

• The proportion of extractable nitrogen decreases with maturity of

coal.
…Continued
 The nitrogen content does not bear any relation to the
rank of coal.

 In most coals it is between 1 and 2%. Lower values

down to 0.5 and upper values up to 2.5

 The nitrogen in coal is useful in carbonization

industries which recover a part of its valuable by-
products like ammonia, ammonium sulphate and
pyridine bases.
Sulphur
 Though its presence (mainly as sulphides) increases the calorific
value of the coal, but it has several undesirable effects.

 The oxidation product of sulphur (e.g. SO2 ,SO3 etc.) especially in

presence of moisture cause corrosion (damage due to chemical and
electrochemical action) of the equipment and cause atmospheric
pollution.

 Sulphur is highly undesirable in metallurgical coal used in iron and

steel making as it badly affects the properties of iron and steel.

 It causes hot shortness of steel, i.e. cracking of steel surface during

hot rolling.
…Continued
 Sulphur is commonly present in coal in three forms, viz.
pyritic
organic
and sulphate
 but occurrence of sulphides and elementary sulphur in
coal have also been reported.

 Inorganic sulphur should be included in the ultimate

analysis.

 Total sulphur is determined by Eschka method or Bomb

method.
…Continued
• In the former method the entire content of sulphur is converted into soluble
sulphate by heating the coal with an oxidizing mixture of magnesium oxide
and sodium carbonate and then the sulphate is estimated.

• Bomb method the total sulphur is also converted into the sulphate form
during the determination of calorific value in Bomb calorimeter.

• The pyritic and sulphate sulphur in coal are determined by the usual
methods of analytical chemistry and then the organic sulphur is calculated
by subtracting the inorganic sulphur from the total sulphur.
…Continued
• The sulphur content of coal has no relation to its rank or composition.

• Although elementary, sulphide, pyritic and organic forms of sulphur

contribute to the calorific value of coal, it is an undesirable
constituent.
Oxygen
• The less the oxygen content, the better is the coal as it reduces its
calorific value.

• It decreases from lignite to anthracite as the maturity of the coal

increases.

• As the oxygen content of the coal increases, its moisture holding

capacity increases and the caking power decreases.

• The oxygen content of coal has a close relation to the rank. The
former decreases with the increase in the latter
Phosphorus
• It is undesirable in metallurgical coal as it badly affects the properties
of the metal and causes cold shortness of steel i.e. cracking of steel
surface during cold rolling.

• Phosphorus occurs in small quantities in coal. And have normally less

than 6.15% phosphorus which offers no problem for common use in
iron and steel production. The coking coals still lower in phosphorus.
(0.01-0.04%)
Chlorine
• It is present mainly as chlorides in the coal.

• It reduces the fusion point of the ash of the coal.

• It is substantially removed during washing of the coal.

 Example
A coal has following proximate analysis on air dried basis:

M= Moisture = 1.5%

VM = Volatile matter = 28%

A = Ash = 15.5%

FC = fixed carbon = 55%

Calculate its ash% on dry basis and volatile matter% on dry ash
free (d.a.f) and dry mineral matter free (d.m.m.f) basis
• 
 Example

A sample of finely ground coal of mass 0.9945 g was placed in a crucible of 8.5506
g in an oven, maintained at 375K for 4.0 ks. The sample was then removed, cooled
in a dessicator and reweighted; the procedure being repeated until a constant total
mass of 9.5340 g was attained.
A second sample, of mass 1.0120 g in a crucible of mass 8.5685 g, was heated with
a lid over a Bunsen burner for 450 s. On cooling and reweighing, the total mass was
9.1921 g. This sample was then heated without a lid over a strong Bunsen flame
until a constant total mass of 8.6255 g. Calculate the proximate analysis of sample
and express the results on “as sampled” and “dry ash free” basis.
Solution
Solution
Solution
 MACRO- COMPONENTS OF COAL
 Petrography of coal…….
 Visual examination of coal in the seam or in large pieces shows that it is not
homogeneous throughout its mass.

 With most coals differences in texture are apparent, some bands having a dull and
others a bright appearance.

 These bands may be separated from one another by ' dirt' bands or may merge into
one another without visible partings.

 These differences are most marked in the case of bituminous coals but can be traced
in lignitous coals, in certain black lignites and, to a less extent, in carbonaceous coals.
…Continued
The macroscopic constituents in bituminous coal which are identifiable by
eye have been termed by Stopes
• vitrain,
• clarain,
• durain
• fusain,

and by Thiessen,
• anthraxylon (vitrain and clarain)
• detritus (durain).
Coal Type/Lithotype
• Coal type is a specific geologic classification based on the general
appearance of coal.

• Coal types, and subsets of types, called lithotypes, are based on the

presence or absence of banding, and the brightness or dullness of
individual bands

• There are two basic coal types, and both can occur in a single coal seam:
Humic (banded)
Sapropelic (non-banded)
Humic Coals

Vitrain

• Vitrain is the bright black brittle coal which normally occurs in very thin bands.

• It breaks with a conchoidal fracture and, when viewed in very thin sections (0.0005 in), is
generally translucent and amber-red in colour.

• It is almost free from plant structures but shows a faintly defined cellular structure.

• The cells of vitrain are generally filled with ulmins and often consist of complete pieces of bark.

• Bark tissues are more resistant to decay and form a larger proportion of coal than might be
expected owing to the fact that bark formed a larger proportion of the tree then than it does now.
Clarain
 Clarain is bright black but less bright than vitrain.

 It is often finely tended so that it tends to break irregularly.

 In thin sections it shows partly the same appearance as vitrain in thin

bands, but these, are inter banded with more opaque bands consisting
largely of fragmented plant remains among which can be identified
cellular material, spore exines and cuticle.
Durain
• Durain is the dull greyish-black coal which is hard and tough and
breaks irregularly.

• In thin sections it is fairly opaque and shows large and small spore
exines and woody fragments in a matrix of opaque grains.

• Figure shows a typical durain structure with large flattened

macrospores
…Continued
• In the coal seam, durain bands are often thick, and can be followed
through­out the area of the seam.

• The fragmentary nature of the plant remains in durains suggests that

its origin was the vegetable mud carried into the coal basin by water
flow; the presence of a higher proportion of clay supports this.

• With very high proportions of clay, this material becomes

'carbonaceous shale' and with very high proportions of spore material
it becomes the variety of coal known as cannel.
Fusain
 Fusain is the soft black powdery material which occurs in very thin
layers in the coal and at which fracture tends to occur.

 It shows the original cell structure of wood, though considerably

deformed, and is considered to be woody fragments which have
undergone a different process of decay from the rest of the coal.
Sapropelic Coals
• Sapropelic coals are non-banded coals. They are relatively uncommon and
tend to occur as single bands.

• Sapropelic coals are very homogenous in appearance, and often break with a
conchoidal (glass-like) fracture.

• Sapropelic Coal Lithotypes:

 Cannel coals: coal bands composed almost entirely of spores and pollen. They are black to dark gray
in color and very hard.
 Boghead coals: coal bands composed almost entirely of algae. They are similar in appearance
to cannel coals, but may be brownish
 Sections of
Bituminous Coal
taken
perpendicular to
the Bedding
Plane
Calorific Value
• It is defined as the quantity of heat liberated by the combustion of unit
quantity of fuel.

• It is of two types
Gross calorific Value: Total amount of heat liberated when one unit of fuel is
burnt completely, and the combustion products are cooled to room temperature.

Net Calorific Value: Total amount of heat liberated when one unit of the fuel is
burnt completely, and the combustion products are allowed to escape.
 Calorific Value
•  Net C.V. = Gross C.V. – Latent heat of water vapors formed

Since 1 part by weight of hydrogen given 9 parts by weight of water, the above equation
becomes

Net C.V. = Gross C.V. – Weight of H2 x 9 x Latent heat of condensation of steam

G.C.V – N.C.V = % of H2 x
Calorific Value
•Modified
  Dulong Formula

CG = ( 8080 C + 34500 (H - ) + 2220 S )

Assumptions:
1. Gross C.V. of C, H and S are 8080, 34500 and 2220 kcal/kg respectively
2. Oxygen is combined with hydrogen as water so surplus hydrogen available for
combustion is (H - )
3. N2 in the coal has been neglected. If accounted, then replace (H - ) by (O+N-
1)/8
4. C.V. of a fuel is the sum of C.V of its constituent elements
Calorific Value
Goutal Formula
CG = 82 F + a. V

a = a constant depending upon the value of volatile matter expressed as percent

d.a.f. (V’), as shown below

V’ a V’ a V’ a
5 145 20 109 35 94
10 130 25 103 38 85
15 117 30 98 40 80
Example
The proximate analysis (% air dried basis), the ultimate analysis (% d.m.m.f basis)
and experimental gross calorific value (kcal/kg on air dried basis) is as follows :

Proximate Analysis % Ultimate Analysis % C.V kcal/kg

Mositure Volatile Ash Fixed C H O N S (experimental value)
Matter Carbon
2 30 16 52 86 6 5 2 1 6900

Calculate its gross calorific value using

i. Modified Dulong formula
ii. Goutal Formula
iii. Difference of gross and net C.V of coal on
a. air dried basis
b. Complete dry basis
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution
Homework
A coal has the following analysis on an as sampled basis:

C = 80.4%, H = 5 %, O = 4.3%, N = 1.5%, S = 0.9%, Moisture = 2.2%,

Ash = 5.7%, volatile matter = 26.9%, fixed carbon = 65.1%.

Estimate the Gross calorific value of the sample from the results of both
the ultimate and proximate analysis on a dry ash-free basis.
Homework

A coal, containing 5% hydrogen and 10% moisture as sampled, has a

gross calorific value of 33.5 MJ/kg on a dry basis. Calculate the gross

calorific value on an “as sampled basis” and the net calorific values on

“dry” and “as sampled” basis.

 Assignment # 01 (deadline 26/04/21)
• Determination of Calorific value by Bomb calorimeter (with an example)
• Caking Index of Coal (Swelling index, Roga Index, Gray-king index)
• Dilatometric Properties
• Thickness of Plastic layer
• Weathering or slacking Index of Coal
• Grindability Index of Coal
• Specific Gravity
• Bulk Density
• Angle of repose
• Porosity, Surface Area, Heat of Wetting
• Refractive Index and Reflectance
• Solubility of Coal