Aol is the internal voltage gain of the device where
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑜𝑙 = 𝑉 𝑖𝑛
Notice that there are no external component, so Aol is
set by the internal design.
Open-loop gain can range up to 200,000 and is not
a well controlled parameter.
Vin Vout
is the voltage gain with external feedback.
is determined by the external component values.
can be precisely controlled by external
component values.
For ideal op amp, the closed-loop gain for
𝑅𝑓
☛ Noninverting amplifier 𝐴 𝑐𝑙 =1 + 𝑅 𝑖𝑛
☛ Inverting amplifier 𝐴 𝑐𝑙 =−
𝑅𝑓
𝑅 𝑖𝑛
𝐴
For non ideal op amp, 𝐴𝑐𝑙 = 1 + 𝛽𝑜𝑙𝐴
𝑜𝑙
For noninverting amplifier, the feedback network is simply
a voltage divider.
𝑅1
The
feedback voltage is 𝑉 𝑓 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅 2
𝑉 𝑜
Recall that , hence the feedback fraction,
Since current through is equal to current
through ,
𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑓
𝑣 −
=
( 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅 𝑓 ) 𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 +
( 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 + 𝑅 𝑓 ) 𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 𝑅𝑓
𝐴 𝑐𝑙 =
𝑉 𝑖𝑛
=
1 + 𝛽 𝐴 𝑜𝑙
=−
𝑅 𝑖𝑛
All of the voltage gain discussed so far applied to the
midrange gain and were considered independent of
frequency.
Midrange Aol extends from zero frequency (dc) up to critical
frequency at which the gain is 3dB less than the midrange
value.
In general, the bandwidth equals the upper critical
frequency minus the lower critical frequency.
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓 𝑐𝑢 − 𝑓 𝑐𝑙
Since fcl for an op amp is zero, hence
𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓
𝑐𝑢
3 dB Open-Loop Response
The open-loop gain of an op-amp is determined by the internal
design and it is very high. The cutoff frequency of an open-loop
op-amp is about 10 Hz.
Notice in the previous slide, that the gain steadily
decreases to a point where it is equal to 1 (0 dB).
The value of frequency at which this unity gain
occurs is the unity-gain frequency (in this case may
named unity gain bandwidth).
The RC lag (low-pass) circuits within an op amp are
responsible for the roll-off in gain as the frequency
increases.
The attenuation of RC lag circuit is expressed as
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑋 𝐶
=
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 √𝑅 2
+ 𝑋2
𝐶
R
Vin Vout
C
The critical frequency of an RC circuit is
1
𝑓𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑅C
The attenuation of an RC lag circuit in terms of frequency
is:
𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
=
𝑉 𝑖𝑛 𝑓
2
√ 1+ 2
𝑓𝐶
If an op-amp is represented by a voltage gain
element with a gain of Aol(mid) plus a single RC lag
circuit, the open-loop gain is given by:
𝐴 𝑜𝑙 ( 𝑚𝑖𝑑 )
𝐴𝑜𝑙 =
2
𝑓
√ 1+ 2
𝑓𝐶
From basic circuit theory, the phase shift of an RC
circuit is
𝑅
𝜃 =− tan
−1
( 𝑋𝐶 )
Since
𝑓
𝜃 =− tan
−1
( 𝑓𝐶 )
Calculate the phase shift for an RC lag circuit for each of the
following frequencies, and then the curve of phase shift
versus frequency. Assume fc = 100 Hz
(a) f = 1 Hz
(b) f= 10 Hz (c)
f = 100 Hz (d) f
= 1000 Hz
(e) f = 10,000
Hz
In our previous discussion, op-amp was assumed to have
a constant roll-off of -20dB/decade above its critical
frequency.
Op-amps that have a constant -20dB/decade roll-off from
fc to unity gain are called compensated op-amps.
Some op-amp circuits consist of several internal stages.
Each stage has its own critical frequency.
An op-amp that has more than one critical frequency is
called uncompensated op-amp.
Cascaded Amplifier Stages
Some complex IC op amp may consist of two or more
cascaded amplifier stages.
The gain of each stage is frequency dependent and
rolls off at -20 dB/decade.
The total response of an op amp is composite of the
individual responses of the internal stages.
Frequency Response of 3-stage Amplifier
Phase Response
In multistage amplifier, each stage contributes to the
total phase lag.
The phase lag of each stage is less than -45° when the
frequency is below the critical frequency.
The phase lag of each stage is equal to -45° at critical
frequency, and greater than -45° when the frequency
is above the critical frequency.
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
𝜃 =− tan
−1
( 𝑓 ) − tan ( 𝑓 )− tan ( 𝑓 )
𝐶1
−1
𝐶2
−1
𝐶3
A certain op-amp has three internal amplifier stages with the following gains and
critical frequencies:
Stage 1: Av1 = 40 dB, fc1 = 2 kHz
Stage 2: Av2 = 32 dB, fc2 = 40 kHz
Stage 3: Av3 = 20 dB, fc3 = 150 kHz
Determine the open-loop midrange gain in decibels and the total phase lag when f = fc1
Closed-Loop Response
The effect of negative feedback on bandwidth:
𝐵 𝑊 𝑐𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑊 𝑜𝑙 ( 1+ 𝛽 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 )
Where β is the feedback factor or feedback attenuation.
Closed-loop gain compared to open-loop gain.
The gain-bandwidth product is always equal to the frequency at
which the op-amp’s open-loop gain is 0dB (unity-gain bandwidth).
Gain-Bandwidth Product (GWP)
An increase in closed-loop gain causes a decrease in
the bandwidth and vice versa.
The product of gain and bandwidth is a constant.
This is true as long as the roll-off rate is fixed.
For example, 𝐴𝑐𝑙 𝑓 𝑐 ( 𝑐𝑙 )= 𝐴 𝑜𝑙 𝑓 𝑐 ( 𝑜𝑙 )
Unity gain bandwidth ¿ 𝐴 𝑐𝑙 𝑓 𝑐 ( 𝑐𝑙 )
Given A = 106 dB at DC, fT = 2MHz, find A at f = 2kHz,
20kHz, and 200kHz.
fT = A f c
A = 106 dB = 200 000
fc = fT / A = 2MHz/200 000
fc = 10
A at 2kHz = 60 dB
A at 20kHz = 40 dB
A at 200kHz = 20 dB
fT = 2MHz
Positive Feedback in Stability
With negative feedback, the signal fedback to the
input of an amplifier is out of phase with the input
signal.
As long as the feedback is negative, the amplifier is
stable.
When the signal fedback from output to input is in
phase with input signal, a positive feedback
condition exists.
With positive feedback, amplifier can oscillates.
Loop Gain
For instability to occur,
☛ There must be positive feedback
☛ The loop gain of the closed-loop amplifier must
be greater than 1
The loop gain is given by:
Loop gain = Aolβ
Phase Shift
For inverting amplifier shown above, there is a phase shift
of 180° because of the inversion between input and
output.
Additional phase shift, θtot, is produced by RC lag circuits
within the amplifier.
Phase Margin
Total phase shift around the loop is 180° + θtot.
The phase margin, θpm, is the amount of additional phase
shift required to make the total phase shift around the
loop 360°.
Phase Margin
If the phase margin is positive, the total phase shift is
less than 360° amplifier stable
If the phase margin is zero or negative, the amplifier
is unstable because the signal fedback is in phase with
the input.
Let’s consider three example cases in order to
demonstrate the condition for stability.
Case 1
The closed-loop gain intersects the open-loop
response on the -20dB/decade slope.
The midrange closed-loop gain is 106 dB, the closed-
loop critical frequency is 5 kHz.
The total phase shift at this frequency due to the three
lag circuits is calculated as:
Case 2
The closed-loop gain is lowered to where it intersects
the open-loop response on the -40 dB/decade slope.
In this case, the closed-loop gain is 72 dB.
The closed-loop critical frequency is approximately 30
kHz.
The total phase shift is:
–176.35°
Case 3
The closed-loop gain is further decreased until it
intersects the open-loop response on the -60
dB/decade slope.
The midrange closed-loop gain in this case is 18 dB.
The closed-loop critical frequency is 500 kHz.
The total phase shift is:
–257.43°
Stability Analysis
Since most op-amp configurations use a loop gain
greater than 1, the criteria for stability are based on
the phase angle of the internal lag circuit.
To illustrate the concept of stability, we use a three
stage op-amp with an open-loop response as shown:
Compensation
As we have discussed, the cause of instability is
excessive phase shift through an op-amp’s internal lag
circuit.
When the phase shift equal or exceed 180°, the
amplifier can oscillate.
Compensation is used to either eliminate open-loop
roll off rate greater than -20 dB/decade or extend the
-20 dB/decade rate to a lower gain.
Effect of Phase Compensation on open-
loop gain
Aol
Uncompensated open-loop gain
With some compensation
With more compensation
f
Compensating Circuit
There are two basic methods of compensation for
OpAmp (IC):
☛ Internal and external
Compensating capacitor is a capacitor that is added
(internally or externally) to the gain stage to shift the
roll-off on additional poles (-40 dB/decade, -60
dB/decade and so on).
The compensated amplifier has a more constant roll-
off through a wider BW than uncompensated, but
there is a shift on the midband gain.
Frequency Compensation
The 741 Op Amp is constructed using internal
compensation.
With internal compensation, the gain rolls off at a rate
of -20/decade, above the break frequency (between 5
and 10 Hz).
An example of external compensation is the 709 op
amp.
The bode plot for this op amp is shown in the next
slide.
In this case, several closed-loop gain curves are
shown,
along with recommended compensating component
Closed-loop gain frequency response plot for 709 Op Amp
