NERVOUS

SYSTEM
 NERVOUS SYSTEM
Nervous System is made up of
all the nerve cell in
vertebrates
invertebrates

the body

Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

This also plays a great role

on the metabolic process
in the system
2
 vertebrates
INVERTEBRATES NERVOUS SYSTEM

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Cnidarians flatworms/ Segmented Arthropods Mollusks

roundworms worms
(anemones (crustacea
medusoid (planaria (polychaete
(snails,
and octopods/
jellyfish) nematodes) soligochaete insects)
s hirudinae) squid)

3
 INVERTEBRATES NERVOUS SYSTEM
No central nervous system in
Cnidarians
All of the sensory and nerve cell
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

are connected via a nerve net

disorders

Cnidarians which is a complex network of

cells that are able to
(anemones communicate and respond to
medusoid
jellyfish) each other

nerve net - little or no collecting of neurons into

ganglia, no anterior “brain” 4
 INVERTEBRATES NERVOUS SYSTEM
Distinct brain and central nervous system
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

flatworms/
roundworms

(planaria
nematodes)
With the appearance of bilateral
symmetry: came cephalization =
concentation of neurons into
ganglia at the anterior end 5
 INVERTEBRATES NERVOUS SYSTEM
With the appearance of
segmentation: segmental “ganglia”
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Segmented
worms

(polychaete
soligochaete Pair of cerebral ganglia (brain)
s hirudinae)
Two fused ventral nerve chords
Lateral nerves in each segment
6
 INVERTEBRATES NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Arthropods nervous system consists of a double
ventral nerve cord, an anterior brain, and several
ganglia
 Ganglia acts as control centers for the body
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

sections in which they are located

disorders

Arthropods

(crustacea
and
insects)

7
 INVERTEBRATES NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Mollusks have simple nervous system that coordinate their
movement and behavior
 Some of the advance species have brain
vertebrates

invertebrates
 Most of them

Nervous system
Abnormalities and

have paired eyes

disorders

that range from

Mollusks
simple cups that
detect light to
(snails, complex eyes of
octopods/ an octopus that
squid) have irises,
pupils, and
retinas similar to
humans 8
 Abnormalities and
disorders
vertebrates DIVERSITY and NEURAL ORGANIZATION

invertebrates
Nervous system
 DIVERSITY OF NEURAL SIGNALING
The diversity of neuron structure and function
allows neurons to play many roles
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Three basic function of all neurons:

Receive and integrate incoming signals
Conduct these signals through the cell
Transmit these signals to other cells

10
 Abnormalities and
disorders
vertebrates

11

invertebrates
Nervous system
 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
 Sensory (afferent) neurons:
 Conveys information from the body to the
central nervous system
 Interneurons:
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

 Located within the central nervous system

disorders

and conveys signals from one neuron to

another.
 Efferent Neurons:
 Convey information from central nervous
system to effector organs

12
 Abnormalities and
disorders
vertebrates
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS

13

invertebrates
Nervous system
 vertebrates
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
Many cellular extensions leading
from the cell body
• only one is an axon
• All others are dendrites 14
 vertebrates
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

BIPOLAR NEURON
One is highly branched and conveys signals to
the cell body
One convey signals away from the cell body 15
 vertebrates
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS

invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

UNIPOLAR NEURON
One branch conveys signals to the cell body
One conveys signals away from the cell body
16
 POLARITY IN NEURONS
Most neurons share the common
property of polarity:
one end receives and the other
transmits.
Cnidarians provide exception to this
vertebrates

invertebrates
Nervous system
rule: Some cnidarian neurons lack
Abnormalities and

polarity and can send and receive

disorders

signals at either end.

GIANT AXONS
 Increase in diameter, increases the
conduction velocity of an action potential
 No particular diameter qualifies an axon as
giant
 A giant axon is of exceptional diameter in
comparison to other axons in the same
17
animal.
 VERTEBRATES NERVOUS

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
CentralSYSTEM
Nervous System
Abnormalities and
disorders

Peripheral Nervous System

18
 Abnormalities and
disorders

Brain

Spinal Cord
Central Nervous System

19

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
 Central Nervous System

Brain
rain
Foreb
Forebrain

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Midbrain
Abnormalities and
disorders

Hindbrain Midbrain
Hindbrain

20
 Central Nervous System

Forebrain
rain
Foreb
• Receiving & processing sensory
information
• Thinking

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

• Perceiving
disorders

• Producing & Understanding Midbrain

Hindbrain
Language
• Controlling Motor Function
2 Major Division
Diencephalon
Telencephalon 21
 Central Nervous System
Diencephalon
• Thalamus Foreb
rain

• Hypothalamus

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

Motor Control
disorders

Relaying sensory information Midbrain

Controlling Autonomic functions Hindbrain

Telencephalon
• Cerebrum

22
 Central Nervous System

Midbrain
rain
Connects the hindbrain and Foreb

forebrain

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

• Auditory & Visual

disorders

Responses
Midbrain
• Motor function Hindbrain

23
 Central Nervous System

Hindbrain Foreb
rain

Extends from the spinal cord and

is composed of Metencephalon &

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

Myencephalon
disorders

Midbrain

Metencephalon Hindbrain

• Pons
• Cerebellum
Assist in maintaining balance & equilibrium,
movement coordination & conduction of
sensory information. 24
 Central Nervous System

Myencephalon Foreb
rain

• Medulla Oblongata

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

Controls autonomic functions

disorders

• Breathing Midbrain
• Heart Rate Hindbrain
• Digestion

25
 Central Nervous System
Brain Areas
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Limbic system

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

• Brain Stem
disorders

-breathing,
-Largest
-little
-Emotional
brain
partheartbeat,
brain
of the brain
&
-thought
-coordination
-contains
blood pressure
&theaction
thalamus,
of movement,
posture
-made
-divided up
&into
of
hypothalamus,balance
the midbrain,&
4 amygdala
sections
pons & medulla
hippocampus.

26
 Central Nervous System

Four Sections of Cerebrum

1. Frontal Lobe
-located at the front brain

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

-associated with reasoning, motor

disorders

skills, higher level cognition, &

expressive language.

Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to

changes in sexual habits, socialization,
and attention as well as increased risk-
taking.

27
 Central Nervous System

Four Sections of Cerebrum

2. Parietal Lobe
-located in the middle

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

section of the brain.

disorders

-associated with processing

tactile sensory information such
as pressure, touch and pain.

Damage to the parietal lobe can result in

problems with verbal memory, an
impaired ability to control eye gaze and
problems with language.
28
 Central Nervous System

Four Sections of Cerebrum

3. Temporal Lobe
-located on the bottom section of

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

the brain.
disorders

-important for interpreting sounds

and the language we hear.

Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to

problems with memory, speech
perception and language skills.

29
 Central Nervous System

Four Sections of Cerebrum

4. Occipital Lobe
-located at the back portion of the

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

brain.
disorders

-associated with the interpreting

visual stimuli and information.

Damage to the occipital lobe can cause

visual problems such as difficulty
recognizing objects, an inability to
identify colors and trouble recognizing
words.
30
 Central Nervous System
Spinal Cord
-cylindrical shaped bundle of nerve fibers
-connected to the brain at the brain stem

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Neurons
basic unit of nervous tissue

31
 Central Nervous System

Grey Matter
Neurons and their
dendrites are

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

contained within an
disorders

H shaped region of
the spinal cord.

32
 Central Nervous System

White Matter
Contains axons that
are covered with an

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

insulating substance
disorders

called myelin.

33
 Central Nervous System

Neurons
Motor Neurons Send information
Carry
Relay information to the the
from
signals between
Sensory Neurons

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

motorfrom
CNS to internal
organs,
and organ
glands
sensory & or
neurons
disorders

Interneurons from external stimuli

Muscles

34
 Central Nervous System

Vertebrae
-Irregular shaped
bones of the spinal

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

column
disorders

-Protects the
spinal cord

35
 Central Nervous System

• Cervical vertebrae – located in the neck

• Thoracic vertebrae – upper back

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

• Lumbar vertebrae – lower back

• Coccygeal vertebrae – in the tail bone

36
 Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic System
-carries sensory and motor information to &
Autonomic System
from the CNS.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

- Transmits sensory information as well as

disorders

for voluntary movement

2 major Neuron types

• Sensory neurons/afferent neurons
-carry information from the nerves to the CNS
• Motor neurons/efferent neurons
-carry information from the brain & spinal cord to
muscle fibers throughout the body. 37
 Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
-regulates the fight-or-flight
-regulates body functions responses
-blood flow
-constriction of the pupils

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
-heartbeat
Abnormalities and

-slowing of the heart

disorders

-digestion
-breathing -dilation of blood vessels
-stimulation of the digestive &
2 Branches genitourinary system.
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system

38
 Peripheral Nervous System
Spinal Nerves
• Cervical
• Thoracic

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

• Lumbar
disorders

• Sacral
• Coccygeal

39
 Peripheral Nervous System
Spinal Nerves
• Cervical Spinal Nerves (C1to C8) control signals to the back of the
head, the neck and the shoulders, the arms and hands, and diaphragm.
• Thoracic Spinal Nerves (T1 to T12) control signals to chest muscles,

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

some muscles of the back, and parts of the abdomen.

disorders

• Lumbar Spinal Nerves (L1 to L5) control signals to the lower part of the
abdomen and the back, the buttocks, some parts of the external genital
organs, and parts of the leg.
• Sacral Spinal Nerves (S1 to S5)control signals to the thighs and lower
part of the legs, the feet, most of the external genital organs, and the area
around the anus.
• Coccygeal – the single coccygeal nerve carries sensory information
from the skin of the lower back.

40
 RECEPTOR & SENSE ORGANS
One of the characteristics of a living organism is its ability to respond
to stimuli. The human sensory system is highly evolved and processes
thousands of incoming messages simultaneously. This complexity allows
you to be aware of your surroundings and take appropriate actions.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

The nervous system allows the body to respond, through effector, to

changes in the environment detected by receptors. The process involves
the neurons, and is usually coordinated by the brain. A reflex action is an
extra-rapid, response to a stimulus, and this process also involves the
nervous system but it bypasses the brain.

41
 RECEPTOR
Are group of specialized cells. They can detect changes in the
environment, which are called stimuli, and turn them into electric impulses.
Receptors are often located in the sense organs, such as the ear, eye, and skin.
Each organ has receptors sensitive to particular kinds of stimulus.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
SENSE ORGAN
Abnormalities and
disorders

A bodily structure that receives a stimulus and is affected in such a

manner as to initiate excitation of associated sensory nerve fibers which
convey specific impulses to the central nervous system where they are
interpreted as corresponding sensations – receptor.
Sense organs are specialized receptors designed for detecting
environmental status and change. Sense organs are its first level of
environmental perception; they are channels for bringing information to
the CNS.
42
 Sense organs are specific for one kind of stimulus:
SENSE RECEPTORS
ORGANS SENSITIVE TO
Skin touch, SENSE RECEPTORS
pressure, ORGANS SENSITIVE TO
pain and Eyes light
temperature

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Tongue chemicals in
food
Ears sound and
position of
the head
Nose chemicals in
the air

43
 Effectors
– an effector is any part of the body that produces the produces the
response. Here are some examples of effectors:
- a muscle contracting to move the arm - a muscle
squeezing saliva from the salivary gland - a gland releasing a

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

hormone into the blood

disorders

Reflex Actions
– a very quick response that does not need the involvement of brain.
Reflex actions are rapid and happens without thinking.

44
 Neurons
– are nerve cells that carry information as tiny electrical signals.
– 3 types of neurons each with a slightly different functions
1. Sensory Neurons – carry signals from receptors: organs which
recognized and respond to stimuli to the spinal cord and brain.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

2. Relay Neurons – carry messages from one part of the CNS: central
disorders

nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to another.

3. Motor Neurons – carry signals from the CNS to effectors: organs which
have an effect when stimulated (e.g. muscles or glands)

45
 CLASSIFICATION OF RECPETORS
By location:
1. Exteroceptors – near the external surface that keep an animal
informed about its external environment.
2. Interoceptors – also called visceroceptors. It is the internal parts of the

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

body which receive stimuli from internal organs.

disorders

3. Proprioceptors – in muscles, tendons, and joints which are sensitive to

changes in tension of muscles and provide an organism with a sense
of body position.
By the form of energy to which it responds:
1. Chemical
2. Mechanical
3. Light
4. Thermal 46
 By the stimulus detected:
1. Mechanoreceptors
- Responds to physical force such as pressure, touch or blood pressure
and stretch.
- Activated by the mechanical perturbation of the cell membrane.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

- Touch: Pacinian corpuscles, relatively large mechanoreceptors that

disorders

register deep touch and pressure in mammalian skin.

- Pain: Pain receptors are relatively specialized endings that respond to a
variety of stimuli signalling possible or real damage.
SLOW PAIN – pain fibers respond to small peptides which are released by
the injured cell.
FAST pain – more direct response of the nerve endings to mechanical or
thermal stimuli.

47
 - Lateral-line System of Fish and Amphibians: a lateral line is distant touch
receptor system for detecting wave vibrations and currents in water.

- The axon is located in either shallow or deep skin, and may be encapsulated

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

by specialized membranes that amplify pressure. When the appropriate type of

disorders

pressure is applied to the skin, these membranes pinch the axon, causing it to
fire. The action potential travels from the point of origin to the neuron’s cell body,
which is located in the dorsal root ganglion. From there, it continues through
another branch of the axon into the spinal cord, even as far as the brain stem.

48
 2. Nociceptors
- Responds to variety of stimuli associated with tissue damage. The
brain interprets the pain.
- Nociceptors convey about the pain and include temperature,
mechanical, and polymodal receptor types. Temperature nociceptors are

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

activated only by extremely high or low temperatures. Mechanical

disorders

nociceptors are activated by extremely strong pressure against the skin.

Polymodal nociceptors are activated by high temperatures, pressure, or
chemicals released from damaged cells. Most nociceptors are free nerve
endings unassociated with specialized membranes.
- Nociception starts at the sensory receptors, but pain, in as much as it
is the perception of nociception, does not start until it is communicated to
the brain.

49
 3. Photoceptors
- Responds to light.
- Light – sensitive receptors range from light-sensitive cells scattered
randomly on the body surface of many invertebrates to the exquisitely
developed camera-type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

- Vertebrates have camera eye with focusing optics. Photoceptor cells

disorders

of the retina are two of kinds.

RODS – designed for high sensitivity with dim light.
CONES – designed to color vision in daylight.
- There are three kinds of cones in the vertebrate eye – one responsive
to wavelengths of light corresponding to the color blue, one responsive to
red wavelengths, and one responsive to green wavelengths. These three
colors form the entire range of colors that humans can perceive.

50
 4. Thermoceptors
- Responds to temperature changed.
- Ciliopathy is associated with decreased ability to sense heat, thus cilia
may aid in the process.
- Transient Receptor Potential Channels (TRP Channels) are believed to

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

play arose in many species in sensation of hot, cold, and pain.

disorders

- Mammals have atleast two types of sensor: those that detect heat
and those that detect cold.

51
 5. Chemoceptors
- It is the oldest and most universal sense in animal kingdom.
- Responds to dissolved chemicals during sensations of taste and smell
and to changes in internal body chemistry such as variations of O2, Co2, or
H+

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

in the blood.
disorders

- Humans and most higher animals have two principal classes of

chemoceptors: taste (gustatory receptors), and smell (olfactory receptors)
- In vertebrates, taste receptors or gustatory sense are found in the
mouth cavity and especially on the tongue, where they provide a means
of judging foods before they are swallowed. A taste buds consists of a
cluster of receptor cells surrounded by supporting cells; it is provided with
a small external pore through which slender tips of sensory cells project.
- Taste sensations are categorized as sweet, salty, acid, bitter and
possibly umami (Jap. for “meaty or “savoury”)
52
 - Olfactory sense is a primal sense for many animals used for
identification of food, sexual mates, and predators.

- We tend to associate taste and smell and indeed there is some

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

relation between them, but there are also distinctions. Not everyone with
disorders

an acute sense of smell, for instance, has a finely honed a sense of taste.
Conversely, people with poor senses of smell do not necessarily suffer a
corresponding impairment in their taste buds. They also differ in their
locations and neurological makeup.

53
 THE NERVE IMPULSE
Across its plasma membrane, every cell has a voltage
called a membrane potential.
The inside of a cell is negative relative to the outside.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Neuron at rest – active transport channels in the

neuron’s plasma membrane pump:
• Sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell.
• Potassium ions (K+) into the cell.
More sodium is moved out; less potassium is
moved in.
• Result is a negative charge inside the cell.
• Cell membrane is now polarized. 54
 SODIUM-POTASSIUM EXCHANGE PUMP

Na+ flows into the

cell during an
action potential, it

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

must be pumped
disorders

out using sodium

pumps so that
the action
potential will
continue.

55
 THE NERVE IMPULSE
Resting potential – the charge that exists across
a neuron’s membrane while at rest.
-70 mV.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

This is the starting point for an action potential.

disorders

56
 THE NERVE IMPULSE
A nerve impulse starts when pressure or other
sensory inputs disturb a neuron’s plasma
membrane, causing sodium channels on a
dendrite to open.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

Sodium ions flood into the neuron and the

disorders

membrane is depolarized – more positive inside

than outside.

57
 THE NERVE IMPULSE
The nerve impulse travels along the axon or dendrites as
an electrical current gathered by ions moving in and out
of the neuron through voltage-gated channels.
Voltage-gated channels – protein channels in the membrane

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

that open & close in response to an electrical charge.

disorders

• This moving local reversal of voltage is called

an action potential.
• A very rapid and brief depolarization of the cell
membrane.
• Membrane potential changes from -70 mV to +35
mV.

58
 THE NERVE IMPULSE
• After the action potential has passed, the
voltage gated channels snap closed and
the resting potential is restored.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
• The membrane potential quickly returns to -70
Abnormalities and

mV during the repolarization phase.

disorders

• An action potential is a brief all-or-none

depolarization of a neuron’s plasma
membrane.
• Carries information along axons.
• An action potential is self-propagating – once
started it continues to the end.

59
 High Speed Conduction
 Insulating layers of the
myelin sheath are
interrupted by nodes of

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Ranvier where the surface
Abnormalities and

of the axon is exposed to

disorders

interstitial fluid.
 Action potentials depolarize
the membrane only at the
nodes.
 This is saltatory
conduction, where the
action potential jumps from
node to node.

60
 Synapses: Junctions Between Nerves
Eventually, the impulse
reaches the end of the
axon.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

Neurons do not make

disorders

direct contact with each

other – there is a small
gap between the axon of
one neuron and the
dendrite of the next.
This junction between a
neuron & another cell is
called a synapse.
61
 Synapses: Junctions Between Nerves
Thousands of
synaptic knobs may

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
rest on a single nerve
Abnormalities and
disorders

cell body and its

dendrites.
Two types of
synapses:
Electrical synapses
Chemical Synapses

62
 Electrical Synapse
Electrical synapses are points where ionic currents flow
directly across a narrow gap junction from one neuron to
another.
No time lag – important in escape reactions.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
disorders

Chemical Synapse
Presynaptic neurons bring action potentials toward the
synapse.
Postsynaptic neurons carry action potentials away from
the synapse.
A synaptic cleft is the small gap between the two
neurons.
63
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Chemical
messengers called
neurotransmitters

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

carry the message

disorders

of the nerve
impulse across the
synapse.

64
 NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse
and bind with receptors on the postsynaptic cell
membrane, which cause ion channels to open in

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

the new cell.

disorders

65
 Kinds of Synapses
There are many types of neurotransmitters, each
recognized by certain receptor proteins.
Excitatory synapse – the receptor protein is a chemically

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

gated sodium channel (it is opened by a

disorders

neurotransmitter).
When opened, sodium rushes in and an action potential begins in
the new neuron.
An individual nerve cell can have both types of receptors.
Sometimes both excitatory and inhibitory
neurotransmitters arrive at the synapse.
Integration is the process where the various
neurotransmitters cancel out or reinforce each other.
66
 Reflex Arc
A simple reflex produces a very fast motor response to a
stimulus because the sensory neuron bringing information
about the stimulus passes the information directly to the

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
motor neuron.
Abnormalities and
disorders

67
 Reflex Arc
Usually, there are interneurons between sensory and
motor neurons.
An interneuron may connect two neurons on the same

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and

side of the spinal cord, or on opposite sides.

disorders

68
 Disorders
Abnormalities and

Abnormalities and
disorders
69

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
 A b n o r m a l i ti e s a n d D i s o r d e r s
Alzheimer's disease is the most common cause of dementia — a group
of brain disorders that cause the loss of intellectual and social skills. It is
characterized by the destruction of nerve cells and neural connections in
the cerebral cortex of the brain and by a significant loss of brain mass. In
Alzheimer's disease, the brain cells degenerate and die, causing a steady

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
decline in memory and mental function.

Abnormalities and
disorders
70
 A b n o r m a l i ti e s a n d D i s o r d e r s
Cerebral palsy is a disorder of movement,
muscle tone or posture that is caused by damage
that occurs to the immature, developing brain, most
often before birth.
Signs and symptoms appear during infancy or

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
preschool years. In general, cerebral palsy causes
impaired movement associated with abnormal

disorders
reflexes, floppiness or rigidity of the limbs and trunk,
abnormal posture, involuntary movements,
unsteady walking, or some combination of these.

People with cerebral palsy may have problems

swallowing and commonly have eye muscle
imbalance, in which the eyes don't focus on the
same object. People with cerebral palsy also may
suffer reduced range of motion at various joints of
their bodies due to muscle stiffness.

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A b n o r m a l i ti e s a n d D i s o r d e r s
Epilepsy is a central nervous system
(neurological) disorder in which brain activity
becomes abnormal, causing seizures or
periods of unusual behavior, sensations, and
sometimes loss of awareness.

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
A chronic neurological disorder

disorders
characterized by sudden and
recurrent seizures which are caused by an
absence or excess of signalling of nerve cells
in the brain. Seizures may
include convulsions, lapses of consciousness,
strange movements or sensations in parts of
the body, odd behaviours, and emotional
disturbances. Epileptic seizures typically last
one to two minutes but can be followed by
weakness, confusion, or unresponsiveness
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 A b n o r m a l i ti e s a n d D i s o r d e r s
Stroke, also called apoplexy,
sudden impairment of brain function
resulting either from a substantial
reduction in blood flow to some part of

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
the brain or from intracranial bleeding.
The consequences of stroke may

disorders
include transient or lasting paralysis on
one or both sides of the body, difficulties
in speaking or eating, and a loss of
muscular coordination. A stroke may
cause cerebral infarctions—dead
sections of brain tissue.

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A b n o r m a l i ti e s a n d D i s o r d e r s
Polio, in full poliomyelitis, also
called infantile paralysis, acute viral
infectious disease of the nervous system that
usually begins with general symptoms such
as fever, headache, nausea, fatigue,

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
and muscle pains and spasms and is
sometimes followed by a more-serious and

disorders
permanent paralysis of muscles in one or
more limbs, the throat, or the chest. More
than half of all cases of polio occur
in children under the age of five. The
paralysis so commonly associated with the
disease actually affects fewer than 1 percent
of persons infected by the poliovirus. 

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A b n o r m a l i ti e s a n d D i s o r d e r s
Meningitis, inflammation of
the meninges, the membranes
covering the brain and spinal cord.
Meningitis can be caused by various

vertebrates
invertebrates
Nervous system
Abnormalities and
infectious agents, including viruses,

disorders
fungi and protozoans, but bacteria
produce the most life-threatening
forms. The patient usually
experiences fever, headache,
vomiting, irritability, anorexia, and
stiffness in the neck.

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