The Human Visual System

The Eye

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 In this section . . .
 Anatomy of human eye
 Image formation by human eye
 Method of light detection
 Retinal processing
 Eye optical defects and diseases

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Human Visual System

Exposure
Image formation Detection Processing
Control

•Cornea •Iris/pupil •Retina •Brain

•Lens •Photoreceptor •Rods
sensitivity •Cones
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Human Eye

Ciliary Muscle
Sclera Ear side (Temporal)
Iris Vitreous Humor

Fovea
Pupil Eyelens
Retina

Optic Nerve
Cornea
Nose side (Nasal)
Aqueous Humor

Suspensory ligament Choroid

 Human eye is a complete imaging system.
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Image Formation

Object Image

 The curved surfaces of the eye focus the

image onto the back surface of the eye.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Cornea

 The outer wall of the

eye is formed by the
hard, white sclera.
Sclera
 Cornea is the clear
Cornea
portion of the sclera.
 2/3 of the refraction
takes place at the
cornea.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Iris and Pupil
Iris  Colored iris controls
the size of the
opening (pupil)
Pupil where the light
enters.
 Pupil determines the
amount of light, like
the aperture of a
camera.
Iris open Iris closed
Dilated pupil Constricted pupil

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Lens
Ciliary muscle
 Eye lens is made of
transparent fibers in a
Lens
clear membrane.
 Suspended by suspensory
ligament.
Suspensory
Ligament
 Used as a fine focusing
mechanism by the eye;
Transparent provides 1/3 of eye’s total
Fibers refracting power.
 Non-uniform index of
refraction.

Cross section of the eye lens

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Accommodation
Distant object  The suspensory ligaments
attach the lens to the ciliary
muscle.
 When the muscle contracts,
the lens bulges out in the
Relaxed muscle back, decreasing its focal
Taut ligaments
Near object length.
 The process by which the
lens changes shape to focus
is called accommodation.
Contracted muscle
Slack ligaments
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Aqueous Humor and Vitreous Humor
 Transparent
Vitreous Humor gelatinous liquid
filling the eye.
 Provides nutrients
to the cornea and
eye lens.
 Also helps maintain
Aqueous Humor
the eyeball shape
with its pressure.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Retina
 Retina is the photosensitive
“detector” for the eye.
 Two types of receptors in the
Retina
retina: rods for low light level,
and cones for color.
Fovea
 Located at the center of the
retina, fovea contains a greater
concentration of cones.
Optic Nerve  Signals from the receptors
leave through the optic nerve to
the brain.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Plexiform Layer
 The retina is made of three
layers:
 Plexiform layer is a network of
Fovea nerves which carry the signals
from the photo receptors.
Photo receptors
 Photo receptors.
 Choroid provides nourishment
Light
to the receptors, as well as
Plexiform Layer absorb any light that didn’t
get absorbed by the photo
receptors, like a antihalation
backing in film.

Optic Nerve Choroid

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Rods and Cones
Synaptic endings
Cell nucleus
Inner segments

Outer segments

Rod Cone
 Highly sensitive to low light  Sensitive to high light level
level or scotopic conditions. or photopic conditions.
 Black and white.  Three types of cones
 Dispersed in the periphery responsible for color vision.
of the retina.  Concentrated in the fovea.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Adaptation
 Why can’t you see
Photopic (cones) immediately after you enter a
movie theater from daylight?
Threshold of detection

 The threshold of detection

(log scale)

Scotopic (rods)
changes with overall light
level.
 The switch is quite gradual,
until the sensitivities of cones
and rods cross over at about
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 7 minutes in the dark.
Time in dark (minutes)

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Distribution of Photoreceptors
Visual Axis
Temporal Nasal  Cones are concentrated
in the fovea.
80 º 80º
60 º 60 º  Rods predominate the
40 º
40 º
20 º periphery.
Number of receptors per mm2

20 º Blind spot
0º
 There is a blind spot
160
140 Rods
where there are no
120 photoreceptors, at the
100 point where the nerves
80
60 exit the eye (optic
40 Cones nerve).
20
60 º 40 º 20 º 0 º 20 º 40 º 60 º 80 º
Angle
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Human Vision
 Human Cone Response to Color
 three cone types (S,I,L) correspond to B,G,R

S I L
Relative response

400 460 490 500 530 600 650 700

Wavelength (nm)

Blue Cyan Green Red

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Retina
Light Cones

Rods

To optic nerve Bipolar

cells
Amicrine
cells
Ganglion
cells
Horizontal
 The retina is made of network of nerve cells. cells
 The network works together to reduce the amount of information
in a process called lateral inhibition.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Eye Defects
Object at infinity
 Image focuses on the
retina for a normal eye.
Normal
 Distant objects look
blurry for a myopic (near
sighted) eye.
Myopic

 Near objects look blurry

for a hyperopic (far
Hyperopic sighted) eye.

Eyes at relax state.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Myopia - Near sightedness
Far object  Distant objects look
blurry because the eye
Myopic eye relaxed
Blurry
cannot relax any farther
so that the image is
Near object focused before the
Myopic eye relaxed retina.
In focus
 Near object in focus
Far object
without accommodation.
Myopia corrected
 Corrected with a
with a negative lens negative lens.

The virtual image from the diverging lens appears to be closer.

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Hyperopia - Far sightedness
Far object  Near objects look
Hyperopic eye blurry because the eye
Partially accommodated cannot accommodate
In focus enough for near
Near object
objects.
Hyperopic eye
Fully accommodated
 Far object in focus.
Blurry  Corrected with a
Near object
positive lens.
Hyperopia
corrected with a
positive lens

Light from the converging lens looks as though it is coming from the distance.
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 Contact Lens
Contact lens  Contact lens is an
Cornea
alternative to
corrective lenses.
 Changes the
curvature of the
cornea by adhering
to the surface with
some fluid.
Fluid

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Presbyopia - “Old eye”
Concave for distance  Lens hardens with age.
correction (if needed)
 Eye cannot adequately
Convex for near object accommodate near
correction
objects.
Far objects  Bifocals (lens with two
focal lengths) contains a
concave lens for distance
(if needed) and a convex
lens for near objects.

Near objects magnified

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Astigmatism
 The cornea is not
Cornea spherical; Focal length
different from one
plane to a
Object
perpendicular plane.

F’ horizontal

F’ Vertical
Direction of blur

Image at F’ Horizontal

Image at F’ Vertical
Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science
 Astigmatism
 Correction of astigmatism
Cylindrical lens
is done through the use
of a cylindrical lens.
 Cylindrical lens converge
rays in one plane but not
the perpendicular plane.

Rays in the Rays in the vertical

horizontal plane are plane are undeviated
focused

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Common Eye Diseases
 Cataract - Clouding of the lens.
 Symptom: Loss of vision
 Cure: Lens replacement

 Glaucoma - Pressure buildup in

the eye, damaging the retina.
 Symptom: Loss of vision first in
the periphery.
 Cure: Surgery to drain fluid from
the eye.
 Loss of vision is usually
permanent

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science

 Common Eye Diseases
 Detached retina - portion
of the retina detaches
Ow!
from the back of the eye.
 Symptom: Perception of
flashes, Loss of vision
 Cure: Laser surgery to
reattach retina
 Pink eye - Infection of the
surface of the eye.
 Symptom: Irritation
 Cure: Antibiotics

Imaging Science Fundamentals Chester F. Carlson Center for Imaging Science