Chapter 1

 Network Essentials

[Chapter 1: Network Essentials]

Version 1.0

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Overview and Objectives

 By the end of this chapter, you will have learned about:
• The fundamentals of networking
• The basics of TCP/IP
• Implementing subnets
 This new knowledge will be consolidated by a written exercise.

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What is a Network?
 A network is a collection of interconnected devices which can
communicate with each other.
 Components of a network:
• Hardware
– Routers
– Switches
– Cables
– Servers
– Personal Computers (PCs)
• Software
– TCP/IP Protocol
– Ethernet

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Types of Networks
 Public networks
• Internet, telephone network
 Private Networks
• Corporate network, home network
 Local Area Network
• Campus, building, room
 Wide Area Network
• Across countries/cities

Networks can be wired or wireless.

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Purpose of a Network
 Communication
• E-mail, chat, messaging
 Information
• Web services, search engines
 Interconnectivity
• Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) through the Internet
 Business
• E-commerce, video conferencing
 Entertainment
• Gaming, movies
 Education
• E-learning, etc.

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OSI Reference Model

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Comparison Between the OSI Model and the

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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TCP/IP Protocol Stack

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Introduction to TCP/IP
 TCP/IP is the de facto standard for internetworking.
 Most generic network applications are based on TCP/IP.
 TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol. It resides in the
transport layer (layer 4) of the OSI model.
 IP stands for Internet Protocol. It resides in the network layer (layer
3) of the OSI model.
 An example of a TCP/IP network is the Internet.

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TCP/IP Overview
 TCP/IP provides universal communication services over
heterogeneous physical networks.
 The benefit of TCP/IP is that it enables communication between
hosts on different networks or that are geographically dispersed.

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TCP/IP Architecture Model

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TCP/IP Protocol Layers

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TCP/IP Protocol Layers – cont’d

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Summary of the TCP/IP Layers

 The application layer is provided by the program that uses TCP/IP
for communication. An application is a user process cooperating with
another process, usually on a different host.
 The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by
delivering data from an application to its remote peer.
 The internet layer provides addressing and routing functions. 
 The network interface layer, also called the link layer or the data-
link layer, is the interface to the actual network hardware.

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Network Interface Layer

 The network interface layer operates over any underlying local or
wide-area network technology.
 Example of protocols on this layer:
• SLIP (Serial Line Interface Protocol)
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

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Internet Layer
 IP provides a datagram (connectionless) transport service across
the network.
 IP doesn’t guarantee delivery.
 Internet Layer’s focus is on addressing and routing.
 Internet Layer includes:
• IP Address
• Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
• IP Routing
• Network Address Translation (NAT)
• IPv6

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Internet Layer – IP Addresses

 An IP address consists of two parts:
• Network Identifier (Net ID), and
• Host Identifier (Host ID)
 In IPv4, the IP address is categorized into different classes:
• Class A
• Class B
• Class C
• Class D
• Class E Network. Host

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Internet Layer – Classes of IP Addresses

Class A: Network
Network Host
Host Host
Host Host
Host

Class B: Network
Network Network
Network Host
Host Host
Host

Class C: Network
Network Network
Network Network
Network Host
Host

Class D: Multicast
Class E: Research

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Internet Layer: Classes of IP Addresses

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IP Address Range

IP Address Range
IP Address Class
(First Octet decimal value)

Class A 1-126(00000001 to 01111110)*

Class B 128-191(10000000 to 10111111)

Class C 192-223(11000000 to 11011111)

Class D 224-239(11100000 to 11101111)

Class E 240-255(11110000 to 11111111)

*127 (011111111) is a Class A address reserved for loopback testing and

cannot be assigned to a network.
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Internet Layer – Default Subnet Mask

Number of Network
Class Subnet Mask
Bits

A 255.0.0.0 8

B 255.255.0.0 16

C 255.255.255.0 24

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Internet Layer – CIDR

CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing)

NET_ID HOST_ID range Valid HOST_IDs

208.162.106.0 0-63 1-62

208.162.106.64 64-127 65-126

208.162.106.128 128-191 129-190

208.162.106.192 192-255 193-254

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Private IP Addresses

Class Private Address Range

A 10.0.0.0/8 to 10.255.255.255/8

B 172.16.0.0 /12 to 172.31.255.255/12

C 192.168.0.0/16 to 192.168.255.255/16

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Internet Layer: ARP

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) was defined by RFC 826 in 1982.
ARP provides a mechanism for learning a receiver's MAC address when only
the IP address is known.

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Internet Layer: IP Routing

Besides IP addresses, IP also has the responsibility of routing packets.
There are different types of routes:
• Static routes
• Dynamic routes (e.g. RIP, OSPF, BGP)

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Internet Layer – Network Address Translation

Connection of IP networks to the Internet requires that local
hosts have globally unique addresses.
Network Address Translation (NAT) reassigns IP addresses
and port numbers.
NAT allows the connection of an entire group of computers to
Internet using a single IP address.
NAT gives access to reserved address blocks.

10.0.0.0 / 8 (10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255)

172.16.0.0 / 12 (172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255)
192.168.0.0 /16 (192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255)

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Internet Layer – NAT Modes of Operation

Different forms of NAT operations

• Port Address Translation (many-to-one)
• Static NAT (one-to-one)
• Dynamic NAT (one-to-one)

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Internet Layer – Port Address Translation

DA : 203.10.18.102

Public Network 4
Private Network

202.10.14.123
DA : 192.168.1.100
Internet

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192.168.1.101 3

SA : 203.10.18.102
1 NAT
2
SA : 192.168.1.100

192.168.1.100

NAT Table

Protocol Private IP address : Public IP address :

Port Port
TCP 192.168.1.100 : 1123 203.10.18.102 : 1123
TCP 192.168.1.101 : 1234 203.10.18.102 : 1234
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Internet Layer – Static NAT

DA : 203.10.18.102

1 Secondary IP Addresses :
203.10.18.102
203.10.18.103
DA : 192.168.1.100
202.10.14.123
Internet 3
NAT
192.168.1.100

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4
SA : 203.10.18.102
SA : 192.168.1.100
192.168.1.101
2

NAT Table

Protocol Private IP address : Public IP address :

TCP 192.168.1.100 203.10.18.102

TCP 192.168.1.101 203.10.18.103

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Internet Layer: IPv6

IPv6 stands for IP version 6.
Ipv6 is described in RFC 2460.
Evolution from IPv4:
• Increase in IP address size
• Support for different traffic types
• Extensions to support authentication, data integrity, and data
confidentiality

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IPv4 and IPv6 addresses

IPv4 address 32 bits
11000000.10101000.0000001.00001111
192.168.1.15
4,294,467,295 IP addresses

IPv6 address 128 bits

00100001.11011010.11010011.00000000.
00000000.00000000.00101111.00111011.
00000010.10101010.00000000.11111111.
11111110.00101000.10011100.01011010
21DA:00D3:2F3B:0000:02AA:00FF:FE28:9C5A
3.4 x 1038 IP addresses

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Transport Layer
 Provides end-to-end data transfer
 Two protocols available:
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): connection-oriented
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP): connectionless

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Transport Layer – Port Numbers

Port # Common Protocol Service Port # Common Protocol Service
7 TCP echo 80 TCP http
9 TCP discard 110 TCP pop3
13 TCP daytime 111 TCP sunrpc
19 TCP chargen 119 TCP nntp
20 TCP ftp-control 123 UDP ntp
21 TCP ftp-data 137 UDP netbios-ns
23 TCP telnet 138 UDP netbios-dgm
25 TCP smtp 139 TCP netbios-ssn
37 UDP time 143 TCP IMAP
43 TCP whois 161 UDP snmp
53 TCP/UDP dns 162 UDP snmp-trap
67 UDP bootps 179 TCP bgp
68 UDP bootpc 443 TCP https (http/ssl)
69 UDP tftp 520 UDP rip
70 TCP gopher 1080 TCP socks
79 TCP finger 33434 UDP traceroute

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Application Layer
 The Application Layer is provided by the program that uses TCP/IP
for communication.
 The Application Layer is concerned with:
• User interaction
• The implementation of software applications, protocols and services

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Calculating Subnets

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Subnetting
 Subnet mask specifies which network the host participates in
• E.g. 10.0.0.0/16, means that the network is 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0,
10.3.0.0, until 10.255.0.0.

10.3.0.0

10.4.0.0

…...

10.1.0.0 10.2.0.0
10.0.0.0

Before subnetting After subnetting

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Decimal vs. Binary Numbers

Decimal Binary Decimal Binary

0 0 10 1010

1 1 11 1011

2 10 12 1100

3 11 13 1101

4 100 14 1110

5 101 15 1111

6 110 16 10000

7 111 17 10001

8 1000 18 10010

9 1001 19 10011

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Decimal-to-Binary Conversion

Base Exponent
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Place Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Example: 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
Convert
decimal 81 to
binary

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Binary-to-Decimal Conversion

Base Exponent
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Place Value 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

Example: 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
Binary
Number

Decimal 128 0 32 0 8 0 0 0
Number: 168

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Subnet Mask Bits

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 128
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 192
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 = 224
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 = 240
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 = 248
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 = 252
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 = 254
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 255

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Calculate Available Host

 To calculate the number of subnets available on a network number,
use 2S, where S=the number of subnet bits.
 To calculate the number of hosts available on a network number,
use 2N–2, where N=the number of host bits.

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Reserved Address - Network and Broadcast

Address

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Subnet Planning
Question:
 If a company needs 19 subnets with a minimum of 6 PCs per
subnet, and the given IP Address is 192.168.1.0, what subnet mask
should I use?

Solution:
 First, determine the class of the IP address. 192.168.1.0 is Class C.
 Second, determine the number of bits needed by subnet and host.
Hence, subnet bits=5 and host bits=3.
 So, the new subnet mask will be 255.255.255.248.

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Subnet address calculation

172.16.2.160 10101100 00010000 00000010 10100000 Host

255.255.255.192 11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000 Mask

172.16.2.128 10101100 00010000 00000010 10000000 Network

172.16.2.191 10101100 00010000 00000010 10111111 Broadcast

172.16.2.129 10101100 00010000 00000010 10000001 First

172.16.2.190 10101100 00010000 00000010 10111110 Last

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Summary
 This chapter introduces the fundamentals of a network
 The use of the OSI reference model, and its relation with the TCP/IP
protocol suite is also mentioned.
 There are 5 classes of IP addresses: Class A, B, C, D, and E.
 A subnet is a logical division of a network, and the number of
subnets to be obtained is defined by modifying the subnet masks.

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