Relational Algebra

Lecture 2
 Relational Model
• Basic Notions
• Fundamental Relational Algebra Operations
• Additional Relational Algebra Operations
• Extended Relational Algebra Operations
• Null Values
• Modification of the Database
• Views
• Bags and Bag operations
 Basic Structure
• Formally, given sets D1, D2, …. Dn a relation r is a subset of
D1 x D 2 x … x Dn
Thus, a relation is a set of n-tuples (a1, a2, …, an) where each ai  Di
• Example:
customer_name = {Jones, Smith, Curry, Lindsay}
customer_street = {Main, North, Park}
customer_city = {Harrison, Rye, Pittsfield}
Then r = { (Jones, Main, Harrison),
(Smith, North, Rye),
(Curry, North, Rye),
(Lindsay, Park, Pittsfield) }
is a relation over
customer_name , customer_street, customer_city
 Attribute Types
• Each attribute of a relation has a name
• The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain
of the attribute
• Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is,
indivisible
– Note: multivalued attribute values are not atomic ({secretary.
clerk}) is example of multivalued attribute position
– Note: composite attribute values are not atomic
• The special value null is a member of every domain
• The null value causes complications in the definition of many
operations
– We shall ignore the effect of null values in our main
presentation and consider their effect later
 Relation Schema
• A1, A2, …, An are attributes

• R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema

Example:
Customer_schema = (customer_name, customer_street,
customer_city)

• r(R) is a relation on the relation schema R

Example:
customer (Customer_schema)
 Relation Instance
• The current values (relation instance) of a relation are
specified by a table
• An element t of r is a tuple, represented by a row in a
table attributes
(or columns)
customer_name customer_street customer_city

Jones Main Harrison

Smith North Rye tuples
Curry North Rye (or rows)
Lindsay Park Pittsfield

customer
 Database
• A database consists of multiple relations
• Information about an enterprise is broken up into parts, with
each relation storing one part of the information

account : stores information about accounts

depositor : stores information about which customer
owns which account
customer : stores information about customers

• Storing all information as a single relation such as

bank(account_number, balance, customer_name, ..)
results in repetition of information (e.g., two customers own
an account) and the need for null values (e.g., represent a
customer without an account)
 Query Languages

• Language in which user requests information from the

database.
• Categories of languages
– Procedural
– Non-procedural, or declarative
• “Pure” Procedural languages:
– Relational algebra
– Tuple relational calculus
– Domain relational calculus
• Pure languages form underlying basis of query languages
that people use.
 What is “algebra”

• Mathematical model consisting of:

– Operands --- Variables or values;
– Operators --- Symbols denoting procedures that
construct new values from a given values
• Relational Algebra is algebra whose operands are
relations and operators are designed to do the most
commons things that we need to do with relations
 Basic Relational Algebra Operations

• Select
• Project
• Union
• Set Difference (or Substract or minus)
• Cartesian Product
 Select Operation
• Notation:  p(r)
• p is called the selection predicate
• Defined as:
p(r) = {t | t  r and p(t)}
Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms
connected by :  (and),  (or),  (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 
• Example of selection:
Account(account_number, branch_name,balance)
 branch-name=“Perryridge”(account)
 Select Operation – Example

• Relation r A B C D

  1 7
  5 7
  12 3
  23 10

A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

A B C D

  1 7
  23 10
 Project Operation

• Notation:

A1, A2, …, Ak (r)

where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation.
• The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained
by erasing the columns that are not listed
• Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
• E.g. to eliminate the branch-name attribute of account
account-number, balance (account)
• If relation Account contains 50 tuples, how many tuples contains
account-number, balance (account) ?
• If relation Account contains 50 tuples, how many tuples contains
, balance (account) ?
 Project Operation – Example

A B C

 10 1
• Relation r:
 20 1
 30 1
 40 2

 A,C (r) A C A C
That is, the projection of
 1  1 a relation on a set of
 1 =  1 attributes is a set of tuples
 1  2
 2
 Union Operation
• Consider relational schemas:
Depositor(customer_name, account_number)
Borrower(customer_name, loan_number)
• For r  s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same number of attributes
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (e.g., 2nd
column of r deals with the same type of values as does the
2nd column of s)
Find all customers with either an account or a loan
customer-name (depositor)  customer-name (borrower)
 Union Operation
• Notation: r  s
• Defined as:
r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}
 Union Operation – Example

A B A B

• Relations r, s:  1  2
 2  3
 1 s
r

A B

 1
r  s:  2
 1
 3
 Set Difference Operation

• Notation r – s
• Defined as:
r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}
• Set differences must be taken between compatible
relations.
– r and s must have the same number of attributes
– attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
 Set Difference Operation – Example

A B A B

• Relations r, s:
 1  2
 2  3
 1 s
r

A B

r – s:  1
 1
 Cartesian-Product Operation

• Notation r x s
• Defined as:
r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}
• Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That
is, R  S =  ).
• If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then renaming
must be used.
 Cartesian-Product Operation-Example

Relations r, s: A B C D E

 1  10 a
 10 a
 2  20 b
 10 b
r
s
r x s:
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 1  10 a
 1  20 b
 1  10 b
 2  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b
 2  10 b
 Composition of Operations
• Can build expressions using multiple operations
• Example: A=C(r  s)
• rs
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 1  10 a
 1  20 b
 1  10 b
 2  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b
 2  10 b
 A=C(r  s)
A B C D E

 1  10 a
 2  20 a
 2  20 b
 Rename Operation
• Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of
relational-algebra expressions.
• Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
Example:
 X (E)
returns the expression E under the name X
If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then
 (A1, A2, …, An) (E)
xx E under the name X, and with
returns the result of expression
the attributes renamed to A1, A2, …., An.
 Banking Example

branch (branch-name, branch-city, assets)

customer (customer-name, customer-street, customer-city)

account (account-number, branch-name, balance)

loan (loan-number, branch-name, amount)

depositor (customer-name, account-number)

borrower (customer-name, loan-number)

 Keys
• Let K  R
• K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a
unique tuple of each possible relation r(R)
– by “possible r ” we mean a relation r that could exist in the
enterprise we are modeling.
– Example: {customer_name, customer_street} and
{customer_name}
are both superkeys of Customer, if no two customers can
possibly have the same name.
• K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {customer_name} is a candidate key for.
• Primary Key
 Keys

Superkeys

Candidate
keys K

Primary key
 Example Queries

• Find all loans of over $1200

amount > 1200 (loan)

• Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater than
$1200

loan-number (amount > 1200 (loan))

 Example Queries

• Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an

account, or both, from the bank
customer-name (borrower)  customer-name (depositor)

• Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an

account at bank.

customer-name (borrower)  customer-name (depositor)

 Additional Operations

We define additional operations that do not add any power

to the relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.

• Set intersection
• Natural join
• Division
• Assignment
 Set-Intersection Operation

• Notation: r  s
• Defined as:
• r  s ={ t | t  r and t  s }
• Assume:
– r, s have the same arity
– attributes of r and s are compatible
• Note: r  s = r - (r - s)
 Set-Intersection Operation - Example

A B
• Relation r, s:  1
A B
 2  2
 1  3

r s

• rs A B
 2
 Natural-Join Operation
 Notation: r s
• Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:
– Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
– If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R
 S, add a tuple t to the result, where
• t has the same value as tr on r
• t has the same value as ts on s
• Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
– Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
– r s is defined as:
r.A, r.B, r.C, r.D, s.E (r.B = s.B  r.D = s.D (r x s))
 Natural Join Operation – Example
• Relations r, s:
A B C D B D E

 1  a 1 a 
 2  a 3 a 
 4  b 1 a 
 1  a 2 b 
 2  b 3 b 
r s

r s
A B C D E
 1  a 
 1  a 
 1  a 
 1  a 
 2  b 
 Natural Join Example
sid sname rating age
sid bid day 22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 103 11/12/96 58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1

R1 S1 =

sid sname rating age bid day

22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96
 Other Types of Joins
• Condition Join (or “theta-join”):
R  c S   c ( R  S)

• Result schema same as that of cross-product.

• May have fewer tuples than cross-product.

• Equi-Join: Special case: condition c contains

only conjunction of equalities.
 “Theta” Join Example
sid bid day sid sname rating age
22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
R1
S1
S1 R1 =
 S1.sid R1.sid

(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
 Division Operation

Notation: rs
• Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”.
• Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively where
– R = (A1, …, Am, B1, …, Bn)
– S = (B1, …, Bn)
The result of r  s is a relation on schema
R – S = (A1, …, Am)

r  s = { t | t   R-S(r)   u  s ( tu  r ) }
 Division Operation – Example

Relations r, s: A B B
 1
1
 2
 3 2
 1 s
 1
 1
 3
 4
 6
 1
 2
r  s: A r



 Another Division Example

Relations r, s:
A B C D E D E

 a  a 1 a 1
 a  a 1 b 1
 a  b 1 s
 a  a 1
 a  b 3
 a  a 1
 a  b 1
 a  b 1
r

r  s: A B C

 a 
 a 
 Division Operation
• Definition in terms of the basic algebra operation
Let r(R) and s(S) be relations, and let S  R

r  s = R-S (r) –R-S ( (R-S (r) x s) – R-S,S(r))

To see why
 R-S,S(r) simply reorders attributes of r

 R-S(R-S (r) x s) – R-S,S(r)) gives those tuples t in

R-S (r) such that for some tuple u  s, tu  r.

 Assignment Operation
• The assignment operation () provides a convenient way
to express complex queries.
– Write query as a sequential program consisting of
• a series of assignments
• followed by an expression whose value is displayed
as a result of the query.
– Assignment must always be made to a temporary
relation variable.
• Example: Write r  s as
temp1  R-S (r)
temp2  R-S ((temp1 x s) – R-S,S (r))
result = temp1 – temp2
 Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations

• Generalized Projection
• Outer Join
• Aggregate Functions
 Generalized Projection

• Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic

functions to be used in the projection list.

 F1, F2, …, Fn(E)

• E is any relational-algebra expression
• Each of F1, F2, …, Fn are are arithmetic expressions
involving constants and attributes in the schema of E.
• Given relation credit-info(customer-name, limit, credit-
balance), find how much more each person can spend:
customer-name, limit – credit-balance (credit-info)
 Aggregate Functions and Operations
• Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single
value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
• Aggregate operation in relational algebra
G1, G2, …, Gn g F1( A1), F2( A2),…, Fn( An) (E)
– E is any relational-algebra expression
– G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
– Each Fi is an aggregate function
– Each Ai is an attribute name
 Aggregate Operation – Example

A B C

• Relation r:   7
  7
  3
  10

sum-C
g sum(c) (r)
27
 Aggregate Operation – Example
• Relation account grouped by branch-name:

branch-name account-number balance

Perryridge A-102 400
Perryridge A-201 900
Brighton A-217 750
Brighton A-215 750
Redwood A-222 700

branch-name g sum(balance) (account)

branch-name balance
Perryridge 1300
Brighton 1500
Redwood 700
 Aggregate Functions
• Result of aggregation does not have a name
– Can use rename operation to give it a name
– For convenience, we permit renaming as part of
aggregate operation

branch-name g sum(balance) as sum-balance (account)

 Outer Join – Example
• Relation loan

loan-number branch-name amount

L-170 Downtown 3000
L-230 Redwood 4000
L-260 Perryridge 1700

 Relation borrower
customer-name loan-number
Jones L-170
Smith L-230
Hayes L-155
 Outer Join
• An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of
information.
• Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation
that does not match tuples in the other relation to the result
of the join.
• Uses null values:
– null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
– All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking)
false by definition.
• We shall study precise meaning of comparisons with
nulls later
 Left Outer Join
• Join

loan Borrower

loan-number branch-name amount customer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith

 Left Outer Join

loan Borrower
loan-number branch-name amount customer-name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
 Right Outer Join, Full Outer Join
• Right Outer Join
loan borrower

loan-number branch-name amount customer-name

L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-155 null null Hayes

Outer Join
loan borrower
loan-number branch-name amount customer-name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
L-155 null null Hayes
 Null Values
• It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by
null, for some of their attributes
• null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not
exist.
• The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is
null.
• Aggregate functions simply ignore null values
• For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like
any other value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same
 Null Values
• Comparisons with null values return the special truth value
unknown
– If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5)
would not be equivalent to A >= 5
• Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
– OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
– AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
– NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
• Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to
unknown
 Modification of the Database

• The content of the database may be

modified using the following
operations:
– Deletion
– Insertion
– Updating
• All these operations are expressed using
the assignment operator.
 Deletion
• A delete request is expressed similarly to a query,
except instead of displaying tuples to the user, the
selected tuples are removed from the database.
• Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values
on only particular attributes
• A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
rr–E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra
query.
 Deletion Examples
• Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.
account  account – branch_name = “Perryridge” (account )

• Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50

loan  loan – amount 0and amount  50 (loan)

 Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.

r1  branch_city = “Needham” (account branch )

r2  branch_name, account_number, balance (r1)

r3   customer_name, account_number (r2 depositor)

account  account – r2
depositor  depositor – r3
 Insertion
• To insert data into a relation, we either:
– specify a tuple to be inserted
– write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be
inserted
• in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r r  E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra
expression.
• The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be
a constant relation containing one tuple.
 Insertion Examples
• Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in
account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.

account  account  {(“Perryridge”, A-973, 1200)}

depositor  depositor  {(“Smith”, A-973)}
 Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge
branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account.
r1  (branch_name = “Perryridge” (borrower loan))
account  account  branch_name, loan_number,200 (r1)
depositor  depositor  customer_name, loan_number (r1)
 Updating
• A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without changing
all values in the tuple
• Use the generalized projection operator to do this task
r   F ,F ,,F , (r )
1 2 l

• Each Fi is either
– the i th attribute of r, if the ith attribute is not updated, or,
– if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression,
involving only constants and the attributes of r, which
gives the new value for the attribute
 Update Examples

• Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.

account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account)

 Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest

and pay all others 5 percent

account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 ( BAL  10000 (account ))

  account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (BAL  10000 (account))
 Example Queries

• Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the

Perryridge branch.
customer-name (branch-name=“Perryridge”
(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan)))

• Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the

Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any branch of the
bank.
customer-name (branch-name = “Perryridge”

(borrower.loan-number = loan.loan-number(borrower x loan))) –

customer-name(depositor)
 Example Queries
• Find the largest account balance
1. Rename account relation as d
2. The query is:

balance(account) - account.balance

(account.balance < d.balance (account x d (account)))

 Example Queries
• Find all customers who have an account from the “Downtown” and the
Uptown” branches.

Query 1

CN(BN=“Downtown”(depositor account)) 

CN(BN=“Uptown”(depositor account))

where CN denotes customer-name and BN denotes

branch-name.
 Example Queries

• Find all customers who have an account at all branches

located in Brooklyn city.

customer-name, branch-name (depositor account)

 branch-name (branch-city = “Brooklyn” (branch))
 Exercises
Works Company
• Employee(ename,str,city)
• Works(ename,cname,sal) GE Cleveland
Joe GE 30K
IBM NYC
• Company(cname,city) Mike GE 100K
• Manages(ename,mname)
Lucy GE 60K
Employee
Sean GE 40K
Joe Pine Kent
Mike Pine Canton Carol GE 70K
Carol Oak Kent
Matt GE 40K
Matt Main Cleveland
Lucy Pine Kent
Sean Pine Kent
Manages
Joe Lucy
Mike Lucy
Carol Matt
Lucy Matt
Sean Lucy
 Find names of employees that live in the same city
and the same street as their managers
Joe Pine Kent Lucy
• Employee Manages:
Mike Pine Canton Lucy
Carol Oak Kent Matt
Lucy Pine Kent Matt
Sean Pine Kent Lucy
(Employee Manages) Employee2

Where mname=employee2.ename & street =employee2.street & city=employee2.street

Joe Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent Joe Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent
Mike Pine Canton Lucy Pine Kent Sean Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent
Carol Oak Kent Matt Main Cleveland
Lucy Pine Kent Matt Main Cleveland
Sean Pine Kent Lucy Pine Kent
Project on ename: Joe
Sean
 Find Employees that make more than their managers

Joe GE 30K Lucy

• Works Manages:
Mike GE 100K Lucy
Carol GE 70K Matt
Lucy GE 60K Matt
Sean GE 40K Lucy
(Works Manages) Works2

Where mname=works2.ename &salary >works2.salary

Joe GE 30K Lucy GE 60K Mike GE 100K Lucy GE 60K

Mike GE 100K Lucy GE 60K Carol GE 70K Matt GE 40K
Carol GE 70K Matt GE 40K Lucy GE 60K Matt GE 40K
Lucy GE 60K Matt GE 40K
Sean GE 40K Lucy GE 60K

Project on ename: Mike

Carol
Lucy
 Find all employees who make more money than any other
employee
Project Works on ename: Joe
Lucy
Sean
Carol
Mike
• Matt
Works Works2 Joe GE 30K Mike GE 100K
Joe GE 30K Carol GE 70K
Where sal<works2.sal Joe GE 30K Lucy GE 60K
Joe GE 30K Sean GE 40K
Joe GE 30K Matt GE 40K
Lucy GE 60K Carol GE 70K
Lucy GE 60K Mike GE 100K
Sean GE 40K Mike GE 100K
Sean GE 40K Carol GE 70K
Sean GE 40K Lucy GE 60K
Project on ename: Joe Carol GE 70K Mike GE 100K
Lucy Matt GE 40K Mike GE 100K
Sean Matt GE 40K Carol GE 70K
Carol Matt GE 40K Lucy GE 60K
Matt
Substract from first projection the second one: Mike
Find all employees that live in the same city as their company
Works Company Employee
Cname=company.cname & ename=employee.ename & city=works.city

Matt GE 40K Cleveland Main Cleveland

• Project on ename: Matt

Extra Material
 Expression Trees

Leaves are operands --- either variables standing for relations or

particular relations

Interior nodes are operators applied to their descendents

customer-name, branch-name

depositor account
 Relational Algebra on Bags

• A bag is like a set but it allows elements to

be repeated in a set.
• Example: {1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 5, 2} is a bag.
• Difference between a bag and a list is that
order is not important in a bag.
• Example: {1, 2, 1, 3, 2, 5, 2} and
{1,1,2,3,2,2,5} is the same bag
 Need for Bags

• SQL allows relations with repeated tuples. Thus SQL is

not a relational algebra but rather “bag” algebra
• In SQL one need to specifically ask to remove duplicates,
otherwise replicated tuples will not be eliminated
• Operation projection is more efficient on bags than on sets
 Operations on Bags

• Select applies to each tuple and no duplicates are

eliminated
• Project also applies to each tuple and duplicates are not
eliminated. Example

A B C A B
Projection on A, B
1 2 3 1 2
1 2 5 1 2
2 3 7 2 3
 Other Bag Operations
• An element in the union appears the number of times it appears in both
bags
• Example: {1, 2, 3, 1} UNION {1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1} =
{1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4}
• An element appears in the intersection of two bags is the minimum of the
number of times it appears in either.
• Example (con’t): {1, 2, 3, 1} INTERSECTION
{1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 1} = {1, 1, 2, 3}
• An element appears in the difference of two bags A and B as it appears in
A minus the number of times it appears in B but never less that 0 times
 Bag Laws

• Not all laws for set operations are valid for bags:
• Commutative law for union does hold for bags:
R UNION S = S UNION R
• However S union S = S for sets and it is not equal to S if S
is a bag
•
 Examples
Reserves Sailors
sid bid day sid sname rating age
22 101 10/10/96 22 dustin 7 45.0
58 103 11/12/96 31 lubber 8 55.5
• 58 rusty 10 35.0

Boats
bid bname color
101 Interlake Blue
102 Interlake Red
103 Clipper Green
104 Marine Red
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved boat
#103
• Solution 1:  sname (( bid 103 Re serves)  Sailors)

• Solution 2:  sname ( (Re serves  Sailors))

bid 103
 Find names of sailors who’ve reserved a
red boat
• Information about boat color only available
in Boats; so need an extra join:
 sname (( Boats)  Re serves  Sailors)
color ' red '

 A more efficient (???) solution:

 sname( (( ( Boats)) Res) Sailors)
 sid bid color'red '


 A query optimizer can find this given the first solution!

 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red or a green
boat
• Can identify all red or green boats, then find
sailors who’ve reserved one of these boats:
 (Tempboats, ( Boats))
color ' red '  color ' green '
 sname(Tempboats  Re serves  Sailors)
 Find sailors who’ve reserved a red and a
green boat
• Previous approach won’t work! Must identify
sailors who’ve reserved red boats, sailors
who’ve reserved green boats, then find the
intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):
 (Tempred,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' red '
 (Tempgreen,  (( Boats)  Re serves))
sid color ' green'

 sname((Tempred  Tempgreen)  Sailors)

 Find the names of sailors who’ve reserved all
boats
• Uses division; schemas of the input
relations to / must be carefully chosen:
 (Tempsids, ( Re serves) / ( Boats))
sid, bid bid
 sname (Tempsids  Sailors)

 To find sailors who’ve reserved all ‘Interlake’ boats:

..... / ( Boats)
bid bname ' Interlake'