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Discrete Mathematics: Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs Section 1.7: Introduction To Proofs

The document provides an overview of proofs in discrete mathematics, including: 1) Definitions of key terms like theorem, proof, lemma, corollary, and conjecture. 2) Methods for constructing proofs, including direct proof, proof by contraposition, and proof by contradiction. 3) Examples of applying each method to prove simple mathematical statements. 4) Discussion of proving conditional, bi-conditional, and equivalent statements. 5) Common mistakes to avoid in proofs like improper logic or division by zero.

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Ahmed Hussain
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103 views

Discrete Mathematics: Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs Section 1.7: Introduction To Proofs

The document provides an overview of proofs in discrete mathematics, including: 1) Definitions of key terms like theorem, proof, lemma, corollary, and conjecture. 2) Methods for constructing proofs, including direct proof, proof by contraposition, and proof by contradiction. 3) Examples of applying each method to prove simple mathematical statements. 4) Discussion of proving conditional, bi-conditional, and equivalent statements. 5) Common mistakes to avoid in proofs like improper logic or division by zero.

Uploaded by

Ahmed Hussain
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Instructor:

Discrete Mathematics  Dr Ghulam Mustafa

Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs


Section 1.7 : Introduction to Proofs
 
What is a Proof ? 

• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true


• A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
theorem  
• Statements in a proof can include the axioms (something
assumed to be true), the premises, and previously proved
theorems 
• Rules of inference, and definitions of terms, are used to
draw intermediate conclusions from the other statements,
tying the steps of a proof 
• Final step is usually the conclusion of theorem 
Related Terms 

• Lemma : a theorem that is not very important 


• We sometimes prove a theorem by a series of lemmas

• Corollary : a theorem that can be easily established from


a theorem that has been proved

• Conjecture : a statement proposed to be a true


statement, usually based on partial evidence, or intuition
of an expert 
Methods of Proving 

• A direct proof of a conditional statement 


p → q 
first assumes that p is true, and uses axioms,
definitions, previously proved theorems, with rules of
inference, to show that q is also true 
• The above targets to show that the case where p is
true and q is false never occurs 
• Thus, p → q is always true 
Direct Proof (Example 1) 

••  Showthat 
if n is an odd integer, then is odd. 
• Proof : 
Assume that n is an odd integer. This implies that
there is some integer k such that 
n = 2k + 1. 
Then = = + 4k + 1 = 2( + 2k) + 1. 
Thus, is odd. 
Direct Proof (Example 2) 

•• Show
  that 
if m and n are both square numbers, 
then mn is also a square number. 
• Proof : 

• Assume that m and n are both squares. This


implies that there are integers u and v such that 
m = and n = . 
• Then mn = = (u. Thus, mn is a square. 
Methods of Proving 

• The proof by contraposition method makes


use of the equivalence 
p → q ≡ ⌝ q → ⌝ p 
• To show that the conditional statement p →
q is true, we first assume ⌝ q is true, and
use axioms, definitions, proved theorems,
with rules of inference, to show ⌝ p is also
true 
Proof by Contraposition (Example 1) 

• Show that 
if 3n + 2 is an odd integer, then n is odd. 
• Proof : 

Assume that n is even. This implies that 


n = 2k for some integer k. 
Then, 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1), so that 3n + 2
is even. Since the negation of conclusion implies the
negation of hypothesis, the original conditional statement
is true 
Proof by Contraposition (Example 2) 

••  Showthat 
if n = ab, where a and b are positive, 
then a ≤ or b ≤ . 
• Proof : 

• Assume that both a and b are larger than . Thus,


ab > n so that n ≠ a b. Since the negation of
conclusion implies the negation of hypothesis, the
original conditional statement is true 
Methods of Proving 

•• The
  proof by contradiction method makes use
of the equivalence  r ⌝r r ^⌝ r

p≡⌝p→ T F F
F T F
where is any contradiction 
• One way to show that the latter is as follows:
First assume ⌝ p is true, and then show that for
some proposition r, r is true and ⌝ r is true 
• That is, we show ⌝ p → ( r ^ ⌝ r ) is true 
Proof by Contradiction (Example 1) 

• Show that 
if 3n + 2 is an odd integer, then n is odd. 
• Proof : 
Assume that the statement is false. Then we
have 3n + 2 is odd, and n is even. 
The latter implies that n = 2k for some integer
k, so that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 2(3k + 1). 
Thus, 3n + 2 is even. A contradiction occurs, so
the original statement is true 
Proof by Contradiction (Example 2) 

••  Showthat 
is irrational. 
• Proof : 
Assume on the contrary that it is rational. 
Then it can be expressed as a / b, for some
positive integers a and b with b ≠ 0. 
Further, we may restrict a and b to have no
common factor. 
Proof by Contradiction (Example 2) 

••  Proof
(continued): 
It follows that = so that a is even. 
Then a = 2c for some integer c, so that 
= . 
It follows that = so that b is even. 
A contradiction occurs, so that the original
statement is true. 
Methods of Proving 

•  When proving bi-conditional statement, we may make


use of the equivalence 
p ↔ q ≡ ( p → q ) ^ ( q → p ) 
• In general, when proving several propositions are
equivalent, we can use the equivalence

↔ ↔…↔ 
≡ (→ ) ^ ( → ) ^ … ^ ( → ) 
Proofs of Equivalence (Example) 

•• Show
  that the following statements about the
integer n are equivalent : 
p := “n is even” 
q := “n – 1 is odd” 
r := “ is even” 
• To do so, we can show the three propositions 

p → q, q → r, r → p 
are all true. Can you do so ? 
Solution

• We prove that all these are equivalent to x being even. If x is even,


then x = 2k for some integer k. Therefore 3x + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 =
2(3k + 1), which is even, because it has been written in the form 2t,
where t = 3k + 1. Similarly, x + 5 = 2k + 5 = 2k + 4 + 1 = 2(k + 2) + 1, so
x + 5 is odd;  and x2 = (2k)2 = 2(2k2), so x2 is even. For the converses,
we will use a proof by contraposition. So assume that x is not even;
thus x is odd and we can write x = 2k + 1 for some integer k. Then 3x
+ 2 = 3(2k + 1) + 2 = 6k + 5 = 2(3k + 2) + 1, which is odd (i.e., not
even), because it has been written in the form 2t + 1, where t = 3k +
2. Similarly, x + 5 = 2k + 1 + 5 = 2(k + 3), so x + 5 is even (i.e., not
odd). Lastly, x2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1, so x2 is odd
Common Mistakes in Proofs 

• Show that 1 = 2. 


• Proof : Let a be a positive integer, and b = a. 
Step   Reason 
  1. a = b Given 
  2. = ab Multiply by a in (1) 

3. – = ab – Subtract by in (2)
4. (a – b)(a + b) = b(a – b) Factor in (3) 
5.
5. a
a++bb==b
b Divide
Divide by
by (a
(a –– b)
b) in
in (4)
(4)
6.
6. 2b
2b =
=bb By
By (1)
(1) and
and (5)
(5)
7.
7. 2
2==1
1 Divide
Divide by
by b
b in
in (6) 
(6) 
Common Mistakes in Proofs 

••  Showthat 
if is an even integer, then n is even. 
• Proof : 
Suppose that is even. 
Then = 2k for some integer k. 
Let n = 2m for some integer m. 
Thus, n is even. 
• p→ q q → p

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