System

Diagrams
 Table of Contents
• Modeling
• Class diagram
• Use case diagram
• Sequence diagram
• Activity diagram
• E-R diagram
• Data flow diagram
 Modeling
• A model is an abstraction of something for the purpose of
understanding it before building it.
- Both physical models and computer models are usually
cheaper than building a complete system.
- Communication with customers
- Visualization
- Reduction of complexity
- Abstract view of the system
 Class Model
• A class describe a group of objects with the same properties.
• Objects in a class have the same attributes and behaviour.
• Class diagram provides a graphical notation for modelling
classes and their relationships.
 Attributes and Operations

• An operation is a function or procedure that may be applied to

or by objects in a class.
• A method is the implementation of an operation for a class.
Links and Associations
 Multiplicity
• Multiplicity specifies the number of instances of one class that
may relate to single instance of an associated class.
• Ex: 1; 1…* ; 3…5 ; 0…1 ; *
• Multiplicity is constraint on cardinality.
 Generalization
• Relationship between superclass and subclasses.
 Visibility

• Visibility refers to the ability of a method to reference a

feature from another class.
• It has possible values of public (+), private (-), protected (#).
N-ary associations
 Aggregation

• Aggregation is string form of association in which an

aggregate object is made of constituent parts.
• Part-whole relationship
• Aggregation vs. Association
 Composition

• Composition is a form of aggregation with two additional

constraints:
1. A constituent part can belong to at most one assembly.
2. It has a coincident lifetime with the whole assembly.
Example Airline System
Example:
 Guidelines for class diagrams

• Try to avoid n-ary associations.

• Restrict generalization upto 4-5 levels.
• Don’t get confused between aggregation and composition.
• Associations are bidirectional, without specifying arrows.
• Try to use minimal number of classes, avoid redundancy.
 Interaction Modelling
• Class model describes the objects in a system and their
relationships, and the interaction model describes how the
objects interact.
• Interactions can be modelled at different levels of abstractions.
• At high level, use cases describe how a system interacts with
outside actors.
• Sequence diagram provides more detail and show the
messages exchanged among a set of objects over time.
• Activity diagram provides further detail and show the flow of
control among the steps of a computation.
 Use Case Model
• Actor: object or set of objects that communicates directly with
the system.
• Use case: functionality that a system can provide by
interacting with actors.
 Conti…
UML use case diagrams are ideal for:
• Representing the goals of system-user interactions
• Defining and organizing functional requirements in a system
• Specifying the context and requirements of a system
• Modeling the basic flow of events in a use case
 Use case diagram
symbols and notation
• Use cases: Horizontally shaped ovals that represent the different uses that
a user might have.
• Actors: Stick figures that represent the people actually employing the use
cases.
• Associations: A line between actors and use cases. In complex diagrams,
it is important to know which actors are associated with which use cases.
• System boundary boxes: A box that sets a system scope to use cases. All
use cases outside the box would be considered outside the scope of that
system. For example, Psycho Killer is outside the scope of occupations in
the chainsaw example found below.
• Packages: A UML shape that allows you to put different elements into
groups. Just as with component diagrams, these groupings are
represented as file folders.
 Use Case Relationships

• Include relationship
• Exclude relationship
• Generalization relationship
 Guidelines for use case diagrams

• The actors need not be always persons.

• Distinct behaviour sequence (exceptions) and error conditions.
• Multiple actors can participate in a use case.
• Every use case should have at least one actor, and every actor
should participate in at least one use case.
 Sequence Model
• A sequence diagram shows participants in an interaction and
the sequence of messages among them.
• Lifeline
• Message
• Concurrent signals
• Each use case requires one or more sequence diagrams to
describe its behaviour.
• Each sequence diagram shows a particular behaviour sequence
of a use case.
 Guidelines for sequence diagrams

• Break large interactions into small tasks and prepare a

sequence diagram for each of them.
• Prepare separate sequence diagram for each error condition.
 Activity Model
• An activity diagram shows flow of control, similar to a
sequence diagram, but focuses on operations rather than
objects.
• Unlike a flow chart, an activity diagram can show both
sequential and concurrent flow of control.
• Branches
• Initiation and termination
• Concurrent activities (fork and merge)
 Guidelines for activity diagrams

• Concurrent activities means that the activities can complete in

any order. Before a merge can happen, all inputs must first
complete.
• If there are conditions, at least one must be satisfied when an
activity completes.
 E-R Model
• The ER model defines the conceptual view of a database.

• ER Model is a database modeling technique that generates an

abstract diagram or visual representation of a system’s data
that can be helpful in designing a relational database. These
diagrams are known as entity-relationship diagrams, ER
diagrams or ERDs.

• It works around real-world entities and the associations among

them.

• At view level, the ER model is considered a good option for

designing databases.
 ER Model Concepts
•ER model has three main concepts:

o Entities(and their entity types and entity sets)

o Attributes (simple, composite, multivalued)

o Relationships (and their relationship types and relationship

sets)
 Entity
• An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable
from other objects.

• Entities are specific objects or things in the real-world

that are represented in the database.

• Entity may be an object with a physical existence for

example student.

• Entity may be an object with a conceptual existence

for example a company, a job, a university course.
 Entity Sets
• An entity set is a set of entities of the same type
that share the same properties.

• The set of all persons who are customers at a

given bank can be defines as the entity set
customer.

• The entity loan might represent the set of all

loans to be awarded by a particular bank.
 Attribute
• An entity is represented by a set of attributes, that is
descriptive properties possessed by all members of an
entity set.

o For example, an STUDENT entity may have the

attributes ID, Name, Address, Gender, Birth Date.
Notations
 Types of Attributes
•Simple or Atomic Attribute
•Composite Attribute
•Single-Valued Attribute
•Multivalued Attribute
•Stored Attribute
•Derived Attribute
 Simple or Atomic Attribute
• It cannot be divided into simpler components
Example age of an employee.
 Composite Attribute
• Composite Attributes can be divided into smaller subparts,
which represent more basic attributes with independent
meanings.
• The attribute may be composed of several components. For
example: Address(House#, Street, City, State, ZipCode,
Country), or Name(FirstName, MiddleName, LastName).
• Composition may form a hierarchy where some components are
themselves composite.
Example
 Single Valued
Attribute
• Single valued attribute has a single value for a
particular entity.
• E.g.: age of employee. There can be only one value for
this.
 Multi-valued Attribute
• Multi-valued attribute has multiple values.
• Example: skill set of employee
• Another example, employee entity set with the attribute
phone number.
• An employee may have zero, one or several phone
numbers.
 Derived Attribute and Stored
Attribute
• The value of this type of attribute can be derived from
the values of other related attributes or entities.
E-R Diagram with Composite, Multi-valued, And Derived Attributes
 Mapping Cardinalities
• Mapping cardinality or cardinality ratio express the number of
entities to which another entity can be associated via a
relationship set.

• Most useful in describing binary relationship sets, although they

can contribute to the description of relationship sets that involve
more than two entity sets.

• For a binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B, the

mapping cardinalities must be one of the following:

o One to one
o One to many
o Many to one
o Many to many
Participation Constraints
• Total Participation − Each entity is involved in the
relationship. Total participation is represented by double lines.
E.g. every loan entity to be related to at least one customer
through borrow relationship.

• Partial participation − Not all entities are involved in the

relationship. Partial participation is represented by single lines.
E.g. the participation of customer in the borrower relationship
set is partial as not all customer has borrowed loan from bank.
 E-R Diagrams
 An E-R diagram can express the overall logical structure of a
database graphically.
 Rectangles represent entity sets.
 Diamonds represent relationship sets.
 Lines link attributes to entity sets and entity sets to relationship
sets.
 Ellipses represent attributes
 Double ellipses represent multi-valued attributes.
 Dashed ellipses denote derived attributes.
 Underline indicates primary key attributes.
 Double Lines indicate total participation of an entity in a
relationship set.
 Double rectangles represent weak entity sets.
 Example 1
• Library System
 Example 2
• Banking System
 Data Flow Diagram
• Data flow diagram is graphical representation of flow of data in an
information system. It is capable of depicting incoming data flow,
outgoing data flow and stored data.
• It views a system as a function that transform the input into desired
output .
• There is a prominent difference between DFD and Flowchart.
o The flowchart depicts flow of control in program modules with all
computation, loops.
o DFDs depict flow of data in the system at various levels.
o DFD does not contain any control or branch elements.
Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Steps:
1.Create a list of activities
2.Construct Context Level DFD
(identifies external entities and processes)
3.Construct Level 0 DFD
(identifies manageable sub process )
4.Construct Level 1- n DFD
(identifies actual data flows and data stores )
5.Construct further levels if required
Symbols
Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Production Example
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example Steps:
The operations of a simple 1. Create a list of activities
lemonade stand will be used
2. Construct Context Level DFD
to demonstrate the creation (identifies sources and sink)
of dataflow diagrams.
3. Construct Level 0 DFD
(identifies manageable sub processes )
4. Construct Level 1- n DFD
(identifies actual data flows and data stores )
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 1. Create a list of activities

Think through the activities

that take place at a
lemonade stand.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 1. Create a list of activities

Also think of the additional

activities needed to support
the basic activities.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment
Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw
Materials
Pay for Labor
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 1. Create a list of activities

Group these activities in

some logical fashion,
possibly functional areas.
Customer Order
Serve Product
Collect Payment

Produce Product
Store Product

Order Raw Materials

Pay for Raw Materials

Pay for Labor

 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 2. Construct Context Level DFD
(identifies sources and sink)
Create a context level
diagram identifying the Context Level DFD (Level 0)
sources and sinks (users).
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 3. Construct Level 0 DFD
Create a level 0 diagram (identifies manageable sub processes )
identifying the logical Level 1DFD
subsystems that may exist.
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 4. Construct Level 1- n DFD
Create a level 1 (identifies actual data flows and data stores )
decomposing the processes Level 2 DFD
in level 0 and identifying
data stores.
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 4. Construct Level 1 (continued)
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes Level 2 DFD
in level 0 and identifying
data stores.
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 4. Construct Level 1 (continued)
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes Level 2 DFD
in level 0 and identifying Order Decision
PURCHASE
data stores. 3.1 ORDER
Produce
Purchase
Customer Order Order Quantity On-Hand
Serve Product RAW
Quantity MATERIALS
Collect Payment Received Received
Goods
3.2
Produce Product Receive
Items
Store Product RECEIVED
ITEMS
Payment Approval
Order Raw Materials
VENDOR
Pay for Raw Materials 3.3
Pay
Vendor
Pay for Labor
Payment
 Creating Data Flow Diagrams
Example 4. Construct Level 1 (continued)
Create a level 1
decomposing the processes Level 2 DFD
in level 0 and identifying Time Worked

data stores. 4.1 TIME CARDS

Record
Time
Customer Order Worked Employee ID
Serve Product EMPLOYEE
Collect Payment
Payroll Request
4.2
Unpaid time cards
Produce Product Calculate
Payroll
Store Product PAYROLL

Payment Approval
Order Raw Materials
4.3
Pay for Raw Materials Pay
Employe
e PAYMENTS
Pay for Labor
Payment
 Process Decomposition
1.1 1.2
1.0
Record Receive
Sale
Order Payment

2.1 2.2 2.3

2.0
Serve Produce Store
Production
Product Product Product

0.0
Lemonade
System
3.1
3.0 3.2 3.3
Produce
Procure- Receive Pay
Purchase
ment Items Vendor
Order

4.1 4.3
4.2
4.0 Record Pay
Calculate
Payroll Time Employe
Payroll
Worked e

Context Level (Level 0) Level 1 Level 2

Example (Library System
DFD)

Fig: Level - 0 Context Level

DFD
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Continued…

Fig: Level - 1 DFD

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Continued…

Fig: Level - 2 DFD

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 Control Flow Model
(CFD)
• The CFD shows the same processes as in DFD but rather than showing
data flow they show control flows.
• CFD show how events flow among processes. It also shows how
external events activate the processes.
• The dashed arrow is used to represent the event.
• A solid bar is used to represent the window. This window is used to
control the processes used in the DFD based on the event that is passed
through the window.
• Instead of representing control process directly in the model the
specifications are used to represent how processes are controlled.
• When a data input is given to the process a data condition should occur
to get the control output.
• There are two commonly used representation of specification: Control
Specification(CSPEC) & Process Specification (PSPEC).

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 Designing Control Flow
Diagrams
• There are certain applications which are event driven rather
than being data driven. They produce control information rather
than producing data. Such applications can be modeled with the
control information along with data flow modeling.
• A graphical model used to represent the control information
along with the data flow model is called control flow model.
• Following guidelines are used to draw CFD:
o List all sensors that can be read.
o List all the interrupt conditions.
o List all the data conditions.
o List all the switches actuated by the operator.
o Use noun/verb parsing techniques to identify control information.
o Describe behaviour of system by identifying the states. Define the transition between the
states.
o Avoid common errors while specifying the control.

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Example (CFD)
CFD DFD
Obtained
temperature
Maximum Check &
convert
temperatur
temperature Converted
e
temperature

PSPEC
If obtained temp > max temp
set above_temp = TRUE
Else
set above_temp = FALSE
Begin
temp_conversion algorithm
End
End if;

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 Control Specification
(CSPEC)
• The CSPEC is used to represent two things –
o The behaviour of the system when an event occurs.
o The processes that get invoked on occurrence of particular event.

• The CSPEC represents the system in two ways –

o State Transition Diagram
• It is a collection of states and events.
o Program Activation Table
• The program activation table represents the input events, output and process
activation in tabular form.

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 Process Specification
(PSPEC)
• The PSPEC is used to describe the inner workings of the
process represented in a data flow diagram.
• The process specification describes the input to the function,
the algorithm, constraints imposed by the function,
characteristics of the process.
• The process specification is used to describe the working of
the process.
• The process specification is given by Program Design
Language (PDL).

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 Continued…
• The data dictionary defines the data unambiguously.
• One can give the detailed description of data items using data
dictionary.
• For large systems size of data dictionary will be large and will
be hard to maintain manually. So for such large system
automated tools (CASE) is used.

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 Example
Name: Passenger
Alias: None
Where used/ How used: Passenger’s query (input)
Ticket (output)
Description:
Passenger = Passenger_Name + Passenger_Address
Passenger_Name = Last_name + First_name + Middle_name
Passenger_Address = Local_address + Community_address + Zip_code
Local_Address= House_number + Street_name +
(Appartment_name)
Community_Address= City_name + [State_name | Province_name]

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 State Diagrams
• A state diagram is used to represent the condition of the
system or part of the system at finite instances of time. It’s
a behavioral diagram and it represents the behavior using
finite state transitions. State diagrams are also referred to
as State machines and State-chart Diagrams. These terms
are often used interchangeably. So simply, a state diagram is
used to model the dynamic behavior of a class in response to
time and changing external stimuli. We can say that each and
every class has a state but we don’t model every class using
State diagrams. We prefer to model the states with three or
more states.
 Uses of statechart
diagram
• We use it to state the events responsible for change in state
(we do not show what processes cause those events).
• We use it to model the dynamic behavior of the system .
• To understand the reaction of objects/classes to internal or
external stimuli.
 Conti…
• Firstly let us understand what are Behavior diagrams? There
are two types of diagrams in UML :

Structure Diagrams – Used to model the static structure of a

system, for example- class diagram, package diagram, object
diagram, deployment diagram etc.
• Behavior diagram – Used to model the dynamic change in the
system over time. They are used to model and construct the
functionality of a system. So, a behavior diagram simply
guides us through the functionality of the system using Use
case diagrams, Interaction diagrams, Activity diagrams and
State diagrams.
 Basic components of a
state chart diagram
• Initial state – We use a black filled circle represent the initial
state of a System or a class.

• Transition – We use a solid arrow to represent the transition

or change of control from one state to another. The arrow is
labelled with the event which causes the change in state.
 Conti…
• State – We use a rounded rectangle to represent a state. A state
represents the conditions or circumstances of an object of a
class at an instant of time.

• Fork – We use a rounded solid rectangular bar to represent a

Fork notation with incoming arrow from the parent state and
outgoing arrows towards the newly created states. We use the
fork notation to represent a state splitting into two or more
concurrent states.
• Join – We use a rounded solid rectangular bar to represent a
Join notation with incoming arrows from the joining states and
outgoing arrow towards the common goal state. We use the join
notation when two or more states concurrently converge into
one on the occurrence of an event or events.
• Self transition – We use a solid arrow pointing back to the
state itself to represent a self transition. There might be
scenarios when the state of the object does not change upon the
occurrence of an event. We use self transitions to represent
such cases.
• Composite state – We use a rounded rectangle to represent a
composite state also. We represent a state with internal
activities using a composite state.

• Final state – We use a filled circle within a circle notation to

represent the final state in a state machine diagram.
EXAMPLE
 Data Dictionary
• The data dictionary can be defined as an organized collection of
all the data elements of the system with precise and rigorous
definitions so that user and system analyst will have a common
understanding of inputs, outputs, components of stores and
intermediate collection.
• The data models are less detailed hence there is a need of data
dictionary.
• Data dictionaries are lists of all the names used in system models.
• Descriptions of the entities, relationships and attributes are also
included in data dictionary.
• The data dictionaries are implemented as a part of structured
analysis and design tool.

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 Continued…
• Data dictionary stores following information:
Name Description
Name Primary name of data or control item, the data store or external
entity
Alias Other name used for the name
Where-used or Describes where the data control item is used and how the item
how is used is used
• Notations used in data dictionary are:
Data Construct Notation Meaning
Composition = Is composed of
Sequence + And
Selection [|] Or
Repetition { }N Repetition of N items
( ) Optional data
*…* Commented information

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Any Questions??
THANK YOU