PRINCIPLES OF TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING

Compiled by:

Engr. Jessa Mae Gomez

Engr. Wyrene Joy Rellin
TOPIC OUTLINE
HIGHWAY TYPES/CLASSIFCICATIONS

BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

GEOMETRIC

PAVEMENT

DRAINAGE

EARTHWORKS
 DESIGN
STANDARDS

Standards have been developed as guide in the design

of highways and to ensure that motorist’s
convenience, environmental safety and aesthetic
considerations are implemented in the most
economical manner consistent with highway service
conditions minimum values, design policies and
standards generally represent.
HIGHWAY TYPES
AND
CLASSIFICATIONS
 HIGHWAY TYPES

2-Lane Highways 4-Lane Undivided Divided Highways

Highways
 ACCORDING TO
HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATIONS
SYSTEM

MINIMUM DESIGN STANDARDS

CLASSIFICATION ROAD RIGHT CARRIAGEWAY ALLOWABLE
OF WAY WIDTH GRADE
National Roads 20.00 m 6.70 m 6.0 %
Provincial Roads 15.00 m 6.10 m 6.0 %
City Roads 15.00 m 6.10 m 6.0 %
Municipal Roads 15.00 m 6.10 m 6.0 %
Barangay Roads 10.00 m 4.00 m 10.0 %
Tourism Roads 15.00 m 6.10 m 6.0 %
FMR 10.00 m 4.00 m 10.0 %
 HIGHWAY CLASSIFICATIONS

ACCORDING TO FUNCTION

• divided arterial highways for through

traffic, with full or partial control of
Expressways access and generally with grade
separations at major intersections

• arterial highways for non-commercial

traffic with full or partial control of
Parkways access, usually located within a park
or a ribbon of park-like
development.
 BASIC
HIGHWAY
DESIGN DATA
 BASIC HIGHWAY
DESIGN DATA
Existing
Field Survey Field Soil
Pavement
Investigation Investigation
Information
Evaluation

Drainage Design Requirements for

Speedy Plan
Recommendation Controls
Preparation
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

FIELD SURVEY INFORMATION

UTILITY
SERVICE
RECORDS

PRELIMINARY OFFICE
SURVEY PROJECTION

FINAL
RECONNAI HIGHWAY LOCATION
-SSANCE LOCATION SURVEY
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

FIELD INVESTIGATION

Proposed Sites for Stream Crossings

• Important for hydrologic and hydraulic considerations

Road Alignment

• Can produce a major impact on the environment, the fabric

of community, and highway users
Existing Utility Services

• Records obtained from utility service providers should be

verified in the field
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

SOIL INVESTIGATIONS

Subsurface Subgrade Widening of Sampling

Existing
Investigation Investigation and Testing
Pavements
• Exploration • detailed • borings and •In Situ
shall be at investigation test pits Sampling
least 1.5 m of the soil should be •Classification
below the surface on located in the of soils thru
proposed which the area of Laboratory
subgrade (for pavement is widening Testing (CBR, Sieve
light cut and Analysis, Atterberg
Limits, Moisture-Density
fill) constructed Relationship, Specific
Gravity, Moisture
Content)
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

EXISTING PAVEMENT EVALUATION

“Whilst test pits and borings can give all the subgrade data, only a
pavement inspection combined with some background history of the
pavement can guide the Pavement Engineer in his evaluation on the
remaining life of the pavement and the original quality of its construction.”

• Rough surface, poor joints and scaled surfaces

would indicate poor or weak concrete
Concrete • Potholes, cracking and pumping may indicate
Roads localized areas of poor concrete or inadequate
subgrade compaction and drainage

• Potholes indicate generally inadequate

pavement strength for the traffic
Asphalt • Longitudinal and transverse cracking and
Roads depressions generally indicate subgrade or
sub- base failure
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

EXISTING PAVEMENT EVALUATION

Spalling Scaling Polishing Map

Cracking

Transverse Faulting Pothole

Crack
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

DRAINAGE RECOMMENDATION

• To maintain all parts of the highway in an

excellent drainage condition, prevent traffic
congestion and slip accidents.

Surface Subsurface Slope Structure

 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

DESIGN CONTROLS

Anticipated Character of
Design Speed
Traffic Volume Traffic
• Traffic Loading • Weight • Maximum safe
(Cumulative) • Dimensions speed that can
• Mobility be maintained

Highway Highway Accident

Classification Information
Capacity
• Geometric • Function • Conduct of
features • System analysis to
• Axle Load determine safety
enhancement
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

REQUIREMENTS FOR SPEEDY PLAN PREPARATION

Plans

Profile

Detailed Cross Section

Detailed Drainage Cross Section

Geotechnical Drawings
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

REQUIREMENTS FOR SPEEDY PLAN PREPARATION

DPWH Department Order No. 32 Series of 2011

“Guidelines in the Submission of Plans, Program of Work (POW)
and Approved Budget for the Contract (ABC) for Approval in
the Central Office.”
Item 1: To ensure accuracy and completeness of the plans and
supporting documents, the implementing office shall review the
plans prior to submission to the approving authority using the "Ready
Checklist" for each project category, as shown in Annexes A-E; and
Item 2: The plans and supporting documents shall be submitted
together with the duly accomplished "Ready Checklist".
 BASIC HIGHWAY DESIGN DATA

REQUIREMENTS FOR SPEEDY PLAN PREPARATION

DPWH Department Order No. 56 Series of 1995

“Quality of Plans”

Item 2: Draftsmanship should be of professional quality. Drafting and

lettering works should be done in ink and with the use of technical pens
and Leroy or similar lettering templates.
Item 3: All words on the plans should be correctly spelled and
grammatical errors in the various texts of the General Notes should be
looked after.
Item 6: All plans should be prepared using Mylar or other high quality
tracing paper.
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

• Embraces the grade line, alignment and

the width of the several component parts
including intersections and roadside
facilities.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE GEOMETRIC
DESIGN OF A NEW HIGHWAY OR REDESIGN OF AN
OLD HIGHWAY

Construction
Environment Safety Methodology Maintenance

Motorists’ Minimum
Convenience hazard Aesthetics
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

• Sight Distance
• Horizontal Alignment
• Vertical Alignment
• Cross Sections
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE

• The distance at which a driver of a vehicle

can see an object ahead of time.

Sight Distance on Vertical Curves

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE

• The distance at which a driver of a vehicle

can see an object ahead of time.

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE
TYPES OF SIGHT DISTANCE

1 2 3 4
Stopping
Passing Sight D Intersection
(Non-Passing)
Distance e Sight Distance
Sight Distance
c
i
s
i
o
n

S
i
g
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | SIGHT DISTANCE

PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE

The distance that drivers must be able to see
along the road ahead to safely and efficiently
initiate and complete passing maneuvers of
slower vehicles on two-lane highways using the
lane normally reserved for opposing traffic.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | SIGHT DISTANCE

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

• Available distance on a roadway to enable a

vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop
before reaching a stationary object
• Sum of the perception-reaction and braking
distances
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | SIGHT DISTANCE

DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

• Distance required for a driver to initiate and
complete safely and efficiently the maneuver
of an unexpected or otherwise difficult-to-
perceive information source or hazard
• It is substantially greater than the stopping
sight distance
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | SIGHT DISTANCE

INTERSECTION SIGHT DISTANCE

• The corner sight distance available for a
vehicle approaching an intersection to see
oncoming vehicles approaching from
crossing legs (the left and right).
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE

Passing Sight Distance

• PSD = 0.278t1 [V-m + a(t1)/2]+0.278Vt2+(var. between 30 and 75m)+(2(0.278Vt2)/3

Stopping Sight Distance

• SSD = 0.278tv + v2/254(f+G)

Decision Sight Distance

• D = 0.278tv + v2/254(f+G)
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

SIGHT DISTANCE
CRITERIA FOR MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE

Vertical Horizontal
Control for Control for Control for
Stopping Stopping Passing

• A height of • height of eye of • height of eye of

object of 0.15 m 1.15 m to an 1.15 m and a
is assumed object on the height of object
road surface of of 1.40 m
height 0.15 m
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

DESIGN ELEMENTS

Radius of Widening on
Superelevation
Curve Curves

construction
design speed topography
cost
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

RADIUS OF CURVE

“The combination of design speed and

maximum superelevation controls the
maximum degree of curvature.”

DPWH MINIMUM DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Minimum Radius is 30m for a design speed

of 30kph and maximum superelevation,
emax=8%.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

RADIUS OF CURVE

Desirably, the
minimum
length of
horizontal
curve on main
highways
should be
about 3x the
design speed.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

SUPERELEVATION

The tilting of roadway to

help offset centripetal forces
developed as the vehicle
goes around a curve. Along
with friction they are what
keeps a vehicle from going
off the road.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

SUPER ELEVATION

we + wf = wV2/gR
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

SUPERELEVATION
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

SUPER ELEVATION
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

SUPERELEVATION

The algebraic difference of

crossover should not exceed
7%

For superelevation more

than 7%, shoulders should be
paved
Maximum Outer
e
Shoulder Slope
1.5% -3 %
2% -3 %
3% -3 %
4% -3 %
5% -2 %
6% -1 %
7% 0%
8% 1%
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

WIDENING ON CURVES

“The objective of widening

along horizontal curve is to
make operating conditions
on curves comparable to
those on tangents.”

“Widening on curves
facilitates
OFFTRACKING.”
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

WIDENING ON CURVES
PRINCIPAL POINTS OF CONCERN:

On simple curves, widening should be applied on the inside

edge only.

On curve design with spiral, widening may be placed on the

inside or divided equally between the inside and outside curve.

Curve widening should be attained gradually over a length

sufficient to make the whole of the traveled way fully usable.

Recommended minimum width of widening is 0.60m.

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

WIDENING ON CURVES
PRINCIPAL POINTS OF CONCERN:

On simple curves, widening should be applied on the inside

edge only.

On curve design with spiral, widening may be placed on the

inside or divided equally between the inside and outside curve.

Curve widening should be attained gradually over a length

sufficient to make the whole of the traveled way fully usable.

Recommended minimum width of widening is 0.60m.

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

WIDENING ON CURVES
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

WIDENING ON CURVES
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL CONTROLS

Alignment should be as directional as possible, consistent with

the topography and with preserving developed properties.

Alignment should be consistent and sharp curves should not

be
introduced at the end of long tangents.

For small deflection angle, curves should be sufficiently long

to
avoid the appearance of “KINK”.

Tangents or flat curvature should be used on high, long fills.

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL CONTROLS

Caution should be exercised in the use of compound curve.

Where topography or RROW restrictions make their use
necessary, the radius of the flatter curve should not be
more than 50 % greater than the radius of the sharper
curve.

Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided. The

reversion length of tangent between reversed curves should
be 50m and in no case should be less than 30m.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL CONTROLS

The “broken-back” or “flat-back” arrangement of curve

(having a short tangent between two curves in the same
direction) should be avoided except when very unusual
topographical or R-O-W dictate otherwise.

To avoid the appearance of inconsistent distortion, the

horizontal alignment should be coordinated carefully with the
profile design.

Ending a curve on a bridge is undesirable, unsightly and adds

needless complications to design and construction.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

GRADIENT
“For economy of vehicle operation,
grades should be as flat as possible.”
In areas subject to inundation, grades should be established
0.50m above
water level.

Grades of bridges should allow 1.50m freeboard above the

maximum
flood water elevation.

Maximum grade widely used is 6.0%

On through cut sections, grades should at least be 0.50% to

provide
longitudinal drainage.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

GRADIENT
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

GRADIENT
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

CRITICAL LENGTH OF GRADE

“The term “critical length Critical Length Upgrade

of grade” is used to indicate (m) (%)
the maximum length of a 500 3
designated upgrade on 340 4
which a loaded truck can
240 5
operate without an
unreasonable reduction in
speed.”

The following critical length of 200 6

upgrades when approached by a
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

VERTICAL CURVE
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

VERTICAL CURVE

The required length of vertical curve to satisfy the

requirements of minimum stopping sight distance, comfort
and appearance, should not be shorter than L=KA

The minimum requirement of vertical curve length without

considering a K valueis 60 m.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL CONTROLS

A smooth grade line with gradual changes should be

sought for in preference to a line with numerous
breaks /short length of grades.

The ‘roller coaster” or the hidden-dip type of profile

should be avoided.

A “broken-back” grade line should be avoided.

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

GENERAL CONTROLS

On long grades, it may preferable to place the

steepest grades at the bottom and flatter the grades
near the top of the ascent.

Where at-grade intersections occur on roadway

sectors with moderate to steep grades, it is desirable
to reduce the grades through the intersection.

Sag vertical curves should be avoided in cuts unless

adequate drainage can be provided.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

CROSS-SECTIONS
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

CROSS-SECTIONS
CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

Pavement
• Surface Type
• Cross Slope

Lane Width

Shoulders
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

PAVEMENT
SURFACE TYPE SELECTION IS BASED ON:

Traffic Volume Performance of

Soil
and Weather Existing
Composition Characteristics Pavements

Overall Annual
Availability of Energy Initial Cost,
Maintenance
Materials Conservation and
Cost
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

PAVEMENT
CROSS SLOPE

Cross slope, cross fall Surface Cross Slope

or camber is a
geometric feature of Type Rating
pavement surfaces; High 1.50 – 2.0%
• For surface drainage Intermediate 2.0 – 3.0%
improvement
Low 3.0 – 4.0%
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

PAVEMENT
LANE WIDTH

Width of pavement is determined by the

lane width.
Desirable lane width is 3.65m which allows large
vehicles to pass without either vehicle having to
move sideways towards the edge of pavement.

Lane width as low as 2.75m may be used on

grounds of economy.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

PAVEMENT
LANE WIDTH

Roads with pavement widths less than 5.5m should

be regarded as single lane.

Pavement width greater than 7.32m for 2-way

movement is not recommended for 2-lane roads as
some drivers will attempt to travel three vehicles
abreast on wide pavement
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

PAVEMENT
SHOULDER

Shoulders on fill preferably should be wider than in cuts

although
the present practice is to make them equal.

Regardless of the width, shoulders should be continuous.

Although, it is desirable that shoulder be wide enough for a

vehicle to be driven completely off the travel way,
narrower shoulders are better than none at all.

Shoulder width of 0.60m may be considered on difficult

terrain
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

SHOULDER

DPWH Department Order No. 40 Series of 2012

“Guidelines on Shoulder Paving Along National Roads”

Item 3: Paving of shoulders shall be considered along

road sections under any of the following conditions:
High embankment
Roadway with
AADT > 1250 (provided with
frequent turning e > 7%
vehicles guardrail
movements
requirements)

Those designed Where with steep and long

with pedestrians are gradient exceeding 6%
curb/gutter/ normally and 100.0 meters
lined canal concentrated respectively
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
Curvature and grades should be in proper balance. Tangent alignment or
flat curvature at the expense of steep or long grades and excessive
curvature with flat grades both represent poor design.

Vertical curvature superimposed on horizontal curvature, or vice versa,

generally results in a more pleasing facility, but such combinations should be
analyzed for their effect on traffic.

Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a

pronounced crest vertical curve. Such an arrangement can be avoided if
the horizontal curvature leads the vertical curvature, and by using design
values well above the appropriate minimum values for the design speed.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
Only flat horizontal curvature should be introduced near the bottom of a
steep grade approaching or near the low point of a pronounced sag
vertical curve.

On 2-lane highways and streets, the need for safe passing sections at
frequent intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the highway length
often supersedes the general desirability for coordination of horizontal and
vertical alignment.

Both horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible at

highway intersections.
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL
& VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN | CROSS-SECTIONS

COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL &

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
POOR COMBINATION OF SMALL RADII
 EXAMPLE OF POOR SITUATIONS
HORIZONTAL CURVE AT THE END OF A STEEP DOWNGRADE
EXAMPLE OF POOR SITUATIONS – POOR VERTICAL SAG
ABRUPT REVERSAL IN ALIGNMENT
WHERE DOES THE ROAD GO?
HIDDEN-DIP
CURVE IS JUST OVER THE CREST.
IT SHOULD START PRIOR TO THE CREST.
VEGETATION CAN SOMETIMES HIDE THE
ALIGNMENT
THANK YOU!
DESIGN is not just what it looks like and feels
like. Design is how it works…

Steve Jobs