Analog and Digital electronics

S. M. Jahadun-Nobi
Lecturer, Dept. of EEE
Bangladesh Army University of Science and Technology(BAUST)
Contents
 Electronics
 Semiconductor
 Classification of semiconductor
 p-n junction
 Crystal diode
 Diode in Forward and Reverse Bias
 Characteristic curve of diode
 Diode equivalent circuit
 Diode Rectifier
 Half Wave Rectifier
 Full Wave bridge rectifier
Electronics
Electronics is the art and science of directing electron
to do useful work or in other words, It is the science of
getting electron to move in the way to do useful work.

Importance:
 Signal Amplification
 Signal Manipulation
 Signal Storage
 Signal Generation
 Signal Display
Semiconductor
Semiconductors (e.g. germanium, silicon etc.) are those
substances whose electrical conductivity lies in between
conductors and insulators. In terms of energy band, the valence
band is almost filled and conduction band is almost empty.
Further, the energy gap between valence and conduction bands
is very small.
In short, a semiconductor has :
i. almost full valence band
ii. almost empty conduction
band
iii. small energy gap (1 eV)
between valence and
conduction bands.
Why Silicon???
Germanium and Silicon, both were used in the manufacture of
semiconductor devices. But silicon is superior because-
 The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth orbit while
the valence electrons in silicon are in the third orbit; closer to the
nucleus. Valence electrons of germanium require smaller amount
of additional energy to escape from the atom and become free
electron. This property makes germanium more unstable at high
temperatures.
 Each energy level/band is associated with certain amount of
energy and is separated from the adjacent bands by energy gap. No
electron can exist in the energy gap. For an electron to jump from
one orbit to the next higher orbit, external energy (e.g. heat) equal
to the energy difference of the orbits must be supplied. Energy gap
of Ge is 0.67 eV which is less than Si (1.1eV)
Properties of Semiconductors
 The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an
insulator but more than a conductor.
 Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient
of resistance i.e. the resistance of a semiconductor
decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-
versa.
 When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic, gallium
etc.) is added to a semiconductor, its current conducting
properties change appreciably.
Classification of Semiconductor
Semiconductor

Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Semiconducto
Semiconductor
r

n-type p-type
Semiconductor Semiconductor
Classification of Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an
intrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic Semiconductor:
If a small amount of suitable impurity is added to a
semiconductor then it is called impurity or extrinsic
semiconductor.
Doping:
The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is known
as doping. The amount and type of such impurities have to be
closely controlled. Generally, for 108 atoms of semiconductor,
one impurity atom is added.
n-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor.
p-type Semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as p-type semiconductor.
n-type Semiconductor Formation
Consider, a pure Silicon crystal.
Silicon atom has four valence
electrons. When a small amount of
pentavalent impurity like Arsenic is
added to Si crystal, a large number of
free electrons become available in
the crystal. As is pentavalent i.e. its
has five valence electrons. An As atom fits in the Si crystal in such a
atom
way that its four valence electrons form covalent bonds with four Si
atoms. The fifth valence electron of As atom finds no place in
covalent bonds and is thus free as shown in Fig. Therefore, for each
As atom added, one free electron will be available in the Si crystal.
In this way an extremely small amount of As impurity provides
enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.
Majority and Minority Carriers
Due to the effect of impurity, n-type material has a large number of
free electrons whereas p-type material has a large number of holes. n-
type material has a large number of free electrons and a small number
of holes. The free electrons in this case are considered majority
carriers since the majority portion of current in n-type material is by
the flow of free electrons and the holes are the minority carriers.
Similarly, in a p-type material, holes outnumber the free electrons.
Therefore, holes are the majority carriers and free electrons are the
minority carriers
pn Junction
At
Whenthe instant
a p-typeof pnsemiconductor
junction formation, the free joined to n-type
is suitably
electrons near thethe
semiconductor, junction
contactin surface
the n region beginpn
is called to junction. it is the
diffuse across the junction into the p region where
control element for semiconductor devices.
they combine with holes near the junction. The result
is that n region loses free electrons as they diffuse
into the junction. This creates a layer of positive
charges near the junction. As the electrons move
across the junction, the p region loses holes as the
electrons and holes combine.
So there is a layer of negative charges near the junction. These two layers
of positive and negative charges form the depletion region (or depletion
layer). The depletion region acts as a barrier to the further movement of
free electrons across the junction and the diffusion of free electrons stops.
There exists a potential difference across the depletion layer and is called
barrier potential (V0).
pn Junction Diode

Symbol:
pn Junction Diode
Operation:
The operation of a pn junction diode can be described by following two situations:
• Forward bias(VD›0): When external dc voltage applied to the junction is in such
a
direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow, it is
called forward biasing.

With forward bias to pn junction diode, the following points are worth noting :
i. The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward voltage it is eliminated
altogether.
ii. The junction offers low resistance to current flow.
iii. Current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of low resistance path.
The magnitude of current depends upon the applied forward voltage.
pn Junction Diode
Reverse bias(VD‹0): When the external dc voltage applied to the
junction is in such a direction that potential barrier is increased,
it is called reverse biasing.

With reverse bias to pn junction, the following points are worth

noting :
i. The potential barrier is increased.
ii. The junction offers very high resistance to current flow.
iii. No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of
high resistance path.
Characteristic curve of diode
Some
 Forward current: It is the current flowing through a forward
definitions
biased diode. Every diode has a maximum value of forward
current which it can safely carry. If this value is exceeded,
the diode may be destroyed due to excessive heat.
 Peak inverse voltage: It is the maximum reverse voltage that
a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. If the
reverse voltage across a diode exceeds this value, the reverse
current increases sharply and breaks down the junction due
to excessive heat.
 Reverse current or leakage current: It is the current that
flows through a reverse biased diode. This current is due to
the minority carriers. Under normal operating voltages, the
reverse current is quite small.
Diode Equivalent
Circuits
Diode Rectifiers

The electric power available is usually an ac supply.

But there are many applications (e.g. electronic
circuits) where dc supply is needed. When such a dc
supply is required, the mains a.c. supply is rectified by
using diodes. The following two rectifier circuits can
be used :
 Half-wave rectifier
 Full-wave rectifier
Half-wave rectifier
In half-wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only
during the positive half-cycles of input ac supply. The negative
half-cycles of ac supply are suppressed and hence no voltage
appears across the load. Therefore, current always flows in one
direction (i.e. dc) through the load though after every half-cycle.

Circuit details:

Operation:
fout = fin
Efficiency of Half-Wave
RectifierRectifier
 
  efficiency ,𝜂=
dc   power   output  
Input   ac   power  

Let v = Vm sin ωt be the alternating voltage that appears across the

secondary winding. Let rf and RL be the diode resistance and load
resistance respectively.
Efficiency of Half-Wave
Rectifier
DC power : The output current is pulsating direct current.
Therefore, in order to find dc power, average current has to be
found out.
Efficiency of Half-Wave
Rectifier

The efficiency will be maximum if rf is negligible as compared to

RL.
∴ Max. rectifier efficiency = 40.6%
Full wave rectifier
The following two circuits are commonly used for full-wave
rectification :
(i) Centre-tap full-wave rectifier (ii) Full-wave bridge rectifier

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier:

Efficiency of Half-Wave
Rectifier
Let v = V sin ωt be the ac voltage to be rectified. Let r and R
m f L
be the diode resistance and load resistance respectively.
The instantaneous current i is given by :

dc output power: The output current

is pulsating direct current.
Efficiency of Half-Wave
Rectifier
Problems
EXAMPLE 2.4 For the series diode configuration of Fig.,
determine VD , VR , and ID .

 
V D = 0.7 V
VR = E - VD = 8 V - 0.7 V = 7.3 V
ID = IR = = 3.32 mA
 Problems
EXAMPLE 2.6 For the series diode configuration of Fig.,
determine VD , VR , and ID .

ID = 0 A
VR = IR R = ID R = (0 A) 1.2 k = 0 V
and VD = E = 0.5 V
Problems
EXAMPLE 2.9 Determine I, V1, V2, and Vo for the series dc
configuration of Fig.

 
V1 = IR1 = (2.07 mA)(4.7 k) = 9.73 V
V2 = IR2 = (2.07 mA)(2.2 k) = 4.55 V
-E2 + V2 - Vo = 0
Vo = V2 - E2 = 4.55 V - 5 V = 0.45 V
Problems
EXAMPLE 2.13 Determine the currents I1, I2, and ID2 for the
network of Fig.
Problems
Example 6.2. An ac voltage of peak value 20 V is connected in
series with a silicon diode and load resistance of 500Ω. If the
forward resistance of diode is 10 Ω, find :
(i) peak current through diode (ii) peak output voltage
 
The peak current through the diode
will occur at the instant when the input
voltage reaches positive peak i.e. Peak input voltage = 20 V
Vin = VF = 20 V. Forward resistance,rf = 10Ω
∴ VF = V0 + (If)peak [rf + RL] Load resistance, RL = 500 Ω
Barrier voltage, V0= 0.7 V
Peak output voltage = (If)peak × RL
= 37.8 mA × 500 Ω
= 18.9 V
Problems
Example 6.7. Find VQ and ID in the network shown in Fig. Use
simplified model.
Problems
Problems
Example 6.18. In the bridge type circuit shown in Fig., the diodes are assumed to
be ideal. Find : (i) dc output voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) output
frequency. Assume primary to secondary turns to be 4.

Primary/secondary turns, N1/N2= 4

R.M.S. primary voltage = 230 V

R.M.S. secondary voltage

= 230 (N2/N1) = 230 × (1/4) = 57.5 V
Maximum voltage across secondary is Vm = 57.5 × √2 = 81.3 V
Problems

 Self Study
i. VK Mehta: problem 6.14, 6.15, 6.19-6.21
Questions
 What is electronics? Write down the importance of electronics.
 What do you understand by a semi-conductor?
 Which are the most commonly used semiconductors and why?
 What do you understand by intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors ?
 What is a pn junction? Explain the formation of potential barrier in
a pn junction.
 Discuss the behavior of a pn junction under forward and reverse
biasing.
 Draw and explain the V-I characteristics of a pn junction.
 Draw the symbol and equivalent circuit of crystal diode.
 Write short notes on the following :
(i) Breakdown voltage (ii) Knee voltage
(iii) Doping (iv)Forward current
(v) PIV (V) Reverse current
Questions
 Describe (i) a half-wave rectifier using a crystal diode.
(ii) a full-wave rectifier using a crystal diode.
 Derive an expression for the efficiency of a half-wave rectifier.
 Derive an expression for the efficiency for a full-wave rectifier.
Thank you