ME165-3

SOLAR AND WIND UTILIZATION

Instructor:
Week-10 Wind Energy Part-2 Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
2020-2021 / 2T 11 February 2021
 OBJECTIVES
 Compute for the Total Power.
 Compute for the Maximum Power.
 Compute for the Actual Power.
 Compute for the Forces on the Blades.
 Discuss the wind turbine operations.
 Discuss flat rating.
 Define cut-in and cut-out velocity.
 Discuss the factors to be considered in Selecting site.
 Discuss and describe site characteristics for small and large machines.
 Define mean wind velocity.
 Discuss wind distribution curves.
 WIND ENERGY

 Principles of Wind Power

 Compute for the Total Power
 Compute for the Maximum Power
 Compute for the Actual Power
 Wind Turbine Operation
 Discuss the wind turbine operations
 Types of Wind Turbines
 Compute for the Forces on the Blades
 Discuss flat rating
 Define cut-in and cut-out velocity
 WIND ENERGY

 Site Characteristics
 Discuss the factors to be considered in selecting site
 Define mean wind velocity
 Discuss wind distribution curves
 WIND ENERGY

 Wind Power
 The available power in the wind with air density r, passing through an area A,
perpendicular to the wind, at a velocity U, is given by
Power = ½ r A U3 (Eq. 10.1)
 Air density decreases with increasing temperature and increasing altitude above
sea level.
 The effect of temperature on density is relatively weak and is normally ignored
because these variations tend to average out over the period of a year.
 The density difference due to altitude, however, is significant; it does not average
out and cannot be ignored.
 WIND ENERGY

 Wind Power
 For example, the air density at Denver, Colorado (elevation1600
m, or 5300 ft., above sea level), is approximately 14% lower than
at sea level, so wind at Denver contains 14% less power than wind
of the same velocity at sea level.
 From the equation, it is obvious that the most important factor in
the available wind power is the velocity of the wind—an increase
in wind velocity of only 20%, e.g., from 5 to 6 m/s (11.2–13.4
mph), yields a 73% increase in available wind power.
 WIND ENERGY

 Maximum Power and Actual Power

 A German physicist Albert Betz concluded in 1919 that no wind turbine can
convert more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy of the wind into
mechanical energy turning a rotor.
 To this day, this is known as the Betz Limit or Betz‘ Law.
 The theoretical maximum power efficiency of any design of wind turbine is
0.59 (i.e. no more than 59% of the energy carried by the wind can be extracted
by a wind turbine). This is called the “power coefficient” and is defined as:
Cpmax = 0.59
 WIND ENERGY

 Also, wind turbines cannot operate at this maximum limit.

 The Cp value is unique to each turbine type and is a function of wind speed that the
turbine is operating in.
 Once we incorporate various engineering requirements of a wind turbine - strength and
durability in particular – the real world limit is well below the Betz Limit with values of
0.35-0.45 common even in the best designed wind turbines.
 By the time we take into account the other factors in a complete wind turbine system -
e.g. the gearbox, bearings generator and so on - only 10-30% of the power of the wind
is ever actually converted into usable electricity.
 Hence, the power coefficient needs to be factored in the equation and the extractable
power from the wind is given by:
Pavail = ½ r A U3 Cp (Eq. 10.2)
 WIND ENERGY

 The swept area of the turbine can be calculated from the length of the turbine
blades using the equation for the area of a circle:
A = p r2 (Eq. 10.3)
 where the radius is equal to the blade length as shown in the figure below:
 WIND ENERGY

 Example Problem 10.1

 We are given the following data:
 Blade length, l = 52 m
 Wind speed, U = 12 m/sec
 Air density, r = 1.23 kg/m3
 Power Coefficient, Cp = 0.4
 Calculate the power converted from the wind into rotational energy in the
turbine?
 WIND ENERGY

 Example Problem 10.1

 Solution:
 Inserting
the value for blade length as the radius of the
swept area into equation (10.3) we have:
l = r =52 m
A = pr2 = p x (52 m)2 = 8495 m2
 WIND ENERGY

 We can then calculate the power converted from the wind into rotational
energy in the turbine using equation (10.2):
Pavail = ½ r A U3 Cp

= ½ x 1.23 x 8495 x (12)3 x 0.4

Pavail = 3.6 MW
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Wind Turbine Operation

 How does a wind turbine work?
 A wind turbine works the opposite of a fan.
 Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to
make electricity.
 Wind turbines operate on a simple principle.
 The energy in the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor.
 The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins a generator to create
electricity.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 How does a wind turbine work?

 Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet
(30 meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of faster and less
turbulent wind.
 Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or building,
or they can be connected to an electricity grid (shown here) for more
widespread electricity distribution.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Two Types of Wind Turbines

 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

Savonius Type VAWT Darrieus Type VAWT

WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

Schematic of Basic Wind Turbine Configurations

 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

 HAWT have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of
a tower, and must be pointed into the wind.
 Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor.
 Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into
a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical
generator.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

 Vertical-axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically.
 Key advantages of this arrangement are
 that
the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be
effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind
direction is highly variable, for example when integrated into
buildings.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) (cont’d.)

 The key disadvantages include
 the low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence
higher cost of the drive train,
 the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil
within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading
on the blade,
 the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and
the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges
of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

 With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be
placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the
rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence
improving accessibility for maintenance.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects

wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine.
 If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of
the building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and
minimum wind turbulence.
 It should be borne in mind that wind speeds within the built environment
are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites, noise may be a
concern and an existing house may not adequately resist the additional
stress.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Upwind & Downwind HAWT

 Upwind HAWT
 The rotor on an upwind turbine is in the front of the
unit, positioned similar to a propeller driven airplane.
 This is the most common type of small turbines
operating in the U.S.
 To keep it oriented into the wind, a yaw mechanism
such as a tail is needed.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Upwind HAWT
 Advantage: The reduced tower shading. The air will start to bend around the
tower before it passes it so there is some loss of power from the interference, just
not the degree as in the downwind turbine. This is the most common type of
small turbines operating in the U.S.
 Disadvantage: The extended nacelle that is required to position the rotor far
enough away from the tower to avoid any problems with a blade strike. The
blades themselves must be somewhat stiff to avoid bending back into the tower.
This will mean the point where the blade attaches to the rotor hub will be stressed
during high, gusty wind conditions.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Downwind HAWT
 The downwind turbine has its rotor on the back
side of the turbine.
 The nacelle typically is designed to seek the
wind, thus negating the need for a separate yaw
mechanism.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Downwind HAWT
 Advantage: The rotor blades can be flexible since there is no
danger of a tower strike. The flexing blade has two
advantages.
1) They can be less expensive to make
2) They can relieve stress on the tower during high or gusty wind
conditions since the flexing allows some wind load to be
transferred directly to the blades instead of the tower.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Downwind HAWT
 Disadvantage: The flexible blade advantage can also be a
disadvantage as the flexing may fatigue the blades. Tower
shadow is problem with a downwind machine since the rotor
blade actually passed behind the tower. This can cause
turbulence and increased fatigue on the unit.
WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

Figure 11-1. Schematic of Translating Lift Device

 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Forces on the Turbine Blades

 Figure 11-1 depicts an airfoil that is moving at some angle relative to the
wind and is subject to both lift and drag forces.
 The relative wind across the airfoil is the vector sum of the wind velocity,
U, and the blade velocity, v. The angle between the direction of the relative
wind and the airfoil chord (the straight line from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the airfoil) is termed the angle of attack, a. The power
extracted by this device may be expressed as
P = ½ r A U3 cl (v/U)[CL-CD (v/U)][1 + (v/U)2]-2
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Forces on the Turbine Blades

P = ½ r A U3 cl (v/U)[CL-CD (v/U)][1 + (v/U)2]-2

where c is the chord length, and

CL = Lift/(1/2 rcl U2) (where lift is the coefficient, a function of airfoil shape and a)
CD = Drag/(1/2 rcl U2) (where drag is the coefficient, a function of airfoil shape and a)

 Lift and drag coefficients for some common airfoils may be found in the literature. In this case, the
projected area of the device is cl.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Cut-in & Cut-out Wind Velocity

 Cut-in Velocity
 It is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will
generate usable power.
 This wind speed is typically between 7 and 10 mph for most
turbines.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Cut-out Velocity
 At very high wind speeds, typically between 45 and 80 mph, most wind
turbines cease power generation and shut down.
 The wind speed at which shut down occurs is called the cut-out speed, or
sometimes the furling speed.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Cut-out Velocity
 Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature which protects the wind turbine from
damage. Shut down may occur in one of several ways.
 In some machines an automatic brake is activated by a wind speed sensor.
 Some machines twist or "pitch" the blades to spill the wind.
 Still others use "spoilers," drag flaps mounted on the blades or the hub which are
automatically activated by high rotor rpm's, or mechanically activated by a spring loaded
device which turns the machine sideways to the wind stream.
 Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when the wind drops back to a safe level.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND TURBINE

 Flat-rated Wind Turbine

 Adjusting the pitch of the blades and the resistance of the prime mover shaft assists
in producing constant power in the velocity range between the rated velocity and
the cut-out velocity, which is the upper limit of the velocity range where the engine
may operate safely. Such turbines are often called flat-rated wind turbines. At the
cut-out wind velocity the engine is shut-off for safety by feathering the blades and
removing all the resistance from the prime mover. At this state, the blades may
rotate but the engine does not produce any power. On the opposite end, where the
wind velocity is very low, the wind turbine is designed to stop producing power at
the cut-in velocity of the wind. Typically, the cut-in velocity is low and the turbine
produces less power that the rated power.
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Factors to be considered in selecting sites

 Wind Speed Considerations
 Clearances
 Shadow Flicker
 Proximity to Electrical & Wireless Equipment
 Height Restrictions
 Sound
 Environmental Constraints
 Spacing Between Turbines
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Wind Speed Considerations

 Average Annual Wind Speed
• Wind map, online service, study
 Extreme Wind Speed
• ASCE/SEI 7-05 wind speed @ 10m, study
 Turbulence
• Characterize the surroundings: slope & obstacles
• Avoid tall obstacles
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Clearances
 Obstacles Impede Airflow & Create Turbulence
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Clearances
 The Turbulence Bubble

• 20H Gets Back to ~85% of Full Wind Speed

• Allow 30H To Get Back to 100%
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Clearances
 Obstacles Create Wind
Shadows
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Shadow Flicker
 Shadow flicker may occur under when the sun passes behind the rotors of a
wind turbine and casts a shadow over neighboring properties.
 As the blades rotate, the shadow flicks on and off, an effect known as shadow flicker.
 The effect occurs inside buildings, where the flicker appears through a window opening.
 The likelihood and duration of the effect depends upon:
Direction of the property relative to the turbine
Distance from turbine
Turbine height and rotor diameter
Time of year and day
Weather conditions (i.e. cloudy days reduce the likelihood of effects
occurring)
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Clearances
 Obstacles Create Wind Shadows
 The Nine Meter Rule: 9m Above Highest Obstacle
for 150m Downwind
• Bottom of Rotor Clearance
• MINIMUM Clearance
 Remember That Trees Grow
 The Turbulence Avoidance Principle
 Get Above or Upwind or Beyond It
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Proximity to Electrical & Wireless Equipment

 Identify Electrical Point of Connection
 Design Collection System to Minimize Line Losses
 Existing Power & Transmission Lines
• EMF interference is negligible
• Clearance rule of thumb: 1.5 * ExtremeHeight
 Wireless Towers
• Wind turbine effect generally minimal
• Avoid line-of-sight between microwave repeaters
• Recommendation: 200m clearance
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Height Considerations
 Local Codes & Ordinances
 Federal Aviation Administration
 General FAA Rules
• Extreme height below 200’ (60m) mostly OK
• Within 20,000’ (6km) of commercial airfield, lower ceiling
• Online Obstacle Evaluation application process
https://oeaaa.faa.gov/oeaaa/external/portal.jsp
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Sound Issues
 Local Codes & Ordinances
 Often expressed as allowable sound
level at property boundary
 Dissipates With Distance
 Carried By Wind
 Sound Levels of Common Sounds
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Environmental Constraints
 Temperature
 Consider not just averages, but also extremes
 Air density decreases with increased temperature
 Icing
 Can occur anywhere with freezing temperatures
 Risk of ice throw is minimal
 Risk of ice fall is similar to other structures
 Clearance rule of thumb: 1.5 * (HubHeight + RotorDiameter) from occupied
buildings or public use areas
 Elevation
 Air density decreases as elevation increases.
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Environmental Constraints
 Slope
 Sharp change in slope causes turbulence
 Tops of cliffs are bad locations
 Set back at least 2 x TowerHeight from a cliff top
 General rules of thumb to observe
 Within 100m, slope should be < 10%
 100m – 500m, < 15%
 500m – 2km, < 20%
 WIND TURBINE – SITE CHARACTERISTICS

 Spacing Between Turbines

 Depends On Wind Direction Variation
 If Significant Prevailing Direction (Uni-directional)
• Lay turbines out perpendicular to prevailing wind direction
• Side-to-side, allow 2 – 3 rotor diameters
• Front-to-back, allow 5 – 7 rotor diameters
 If No Significant Prevailing Direction
• Maintain 5 – 7 rotor diameters in both directions
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 Wind Velocity
 Wind velocity is the rate and force at which air moves horizontally in a given
moment or amount of time.
 Measuring Wind Velocity
 Wind speed can be measured as a rate of speed (kilometers per hour, for
example) or as a level on a scale (the Beaufort Scale being the most common).
 The Beaufort Scale is a method of describing wind speed. Based on
observable sea conditions, it measures the force of wind on a scale from zero
to 12.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 Measuring Wind Velocity

 Time
 Wind speed can either be measured as an average rate over a period of
time, or peak rates in a given moment (to measure gusts, for example).
 Measuring Devices
 Anemometers are used to measure the rate of wind speed. Though there
are various forms, the most common are cup anemometers and windmill
anemometers.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 Mean Wind Velocity

 The co-existence of the temporarily higher
“gust” and lower “lull” winds.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 Distribution of wind speed

 The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given
location does not alone indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine
could produce there.
 To assess the frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a
probability distribution function is often fit to the observed data.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 Distribution of wind speed

 Different locations will have different wind speed distributions.
 The Weibull model closely mirrors the actual distribution of
hourly wind speeds at many locations.
 The Weibull factor is often close to 2 and therefore a Rayleigh
distribution can be used as a less accurate, but simpler model.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 Distribution of wind speed

 Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue) for all of 2002 at the Lee
Ranch facility in Colorado.
 The histogram shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh model
distribution for the same average wind speed.
 WIND ENERGY-WIND VELOCITY

 High altitude winds

 Power generation from winds usually comes from winds very
close to the surface of the earth.
 Winds at higher altitudes are stronger and more consistent
 Recent years have seen significant advances in technologies meant to
generate electricity from high altitude winds.
 REFERENCES & MATERIAL SOURCES
Reference

• Energy Conversion, D. Yogi Goswami, Frank Kreith, 2008

Websites
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine
• http://www.raeng.org.uk/education/diploma/maths/pdf/exemplars_advanced/23_wind_turbine.pdf
• http://www1.eere.energy.gov/wind/wind_how.html
• http://www.awea.org/
• http://www.power-talk.net/upwind-turbine.html
• http://www.photonenergy.co.uk/turbinesiting.php
• http://www.windpower.org/en/
• http://www.oswea.org/
• http://www.the-mrea.org/
• http://energybible.com/wind_energy/wind_speed.html
• http://www.catpaisatge.net/fitxers/guies/eolics/A675507.pdf
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power

Youtube Videos
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LNXTm7aHvWc&feature=related