MODULE 1

Collection of Data
Collection of data, types, primary & secondary methods
Where do data come from?
• Take a step back – if we’re starting from scratch, how do we collect / find
data?
• Secondary data
• Primary data
Secondary Data
• Secondary data – data someone else has collected
• This is what you were looking for in your assignment.
Secondary Data – Examples of Sources
• County health departments
• Vital Statistics – birth, death certificates
• Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
• Private and foundation databases
• City and county governments
• Surveillance data from state government programs
• Federal agency statistics - Census, NIH, etc.
Secondary Data – Limitations
• What did you find on the frustrating side as you looked for data on the state’s
websites?
Secondary Data – Limitations
• When was it collected? For how long?
• May be out of date for what you want to analyze.
• May not have been collected long enough for detecting trends.
• E.g. Have new anticorruption laws impacted Russia’s government accountability ratings?
Secondary Data – Limitations
• Is the data set complete?
• There may be missing information on some observations
• Unless such missing information is caught and corrected for, analysis will be biased.
Secondary Data – Limitations
• Are there confounding problems?
• Sample selection bias?
• Source choice bias?
• In time series, did some observations drop out over time?
Secondary Data – Advantages
• No need to reinvent the wheel.
• If someone has already found the data, take advantage of it.
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It will save you money.
• Even if you have to pay for access, often it is cheaper in terms of money than collecting
your own data. (more on this later.)
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It will save you time.
• Primary data collection is very time consuming. (More on this later, too!)
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It may be very accurate.
• When especially a government agency has collected the data, incredible amounts of time
and money went into it. It’s probably highly accurate.
Secondary Data – Advantages
• It has great exploratory value
• Exploring research questions and formulating hypothesis to test.
Primary Data
• Primary data – data you collect
Primary Data - Examples
• Surveys
• Focus groups
• Questionnaires
• Personal interviews
• Experiments and observational study
Primary Data - Limitations
• Do you have the time and money for:
• Designing your collection instrument?
• Selecting your population or sample?
• Pretesting/piloting the instrument to work out sources of bias?
• Administration of the instrument?
• Entry/collation of data?
Primary Data - Limitations
• Uniqueness
• May not be able to compare to other populations
Primary Data - Limitations
• Researcher error
• Sample bias
• Other confounding factors
Data collection choice
• What you must ask yourself:
• Will the data answer my research question?
Data collection choice
• To answer that
• You much first decide what your research question is
• Then you need to decide what data/variables are needed to scientifically answer the
question
Scaling
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are
located.

Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a

number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely
Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100
to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a
continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.
Primary Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
• The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying
objects.
• When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence
between the numbers and the objects.
• The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the
objects.
• The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting.
• Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts,
are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode.
Primary Scales of Measurement
Ordinal Scale
• A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the
relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic.
• Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than
some other object, but not how much more or less.
• Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered
relationships between the objects.
• In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal
scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile,
median.
Primary Scales of Measurement
Interval Scale
• Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the
characteristic being measured.
• It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
• The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of
measurement are arbitrary.
• Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the
properties of the scale.
• It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
• Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied
to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard
deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.
Primary Scales of Measurement
Ratio Scale

• Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales we
can identify or classify objects, rank the objects and compare intervals or
differences.
• It has an absolute zero point.
• It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
• In marketing ,sales, costs, market share and number of customers are
variables measured on a ratio scale.
• Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a positive
constant, are allowed.
• All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data
A Classification of Scaling Techniques
A Comparison of Scaling Techniques
• Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only
ordinal or rank order properties.
 
• In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others
in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or
ratio scaled.
Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales
• Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected.
• Same known reference points for all respondents.
• Easily understood and can be applied.
• Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.
• Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.
Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

• Ordinal nature of the data

• Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Paired Comparison Scaling
• A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according
to some criterion.
• The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
• Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling
technique.
• With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required
• Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison
data to a rank order.
Paired Comparison Scaling
The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The
consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one
with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a
minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind
taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand
reputation are very important factors in the consumer’s purchasing
decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the
marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New
Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its
introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role
in the purchase of Coke.

A paired comparison taste

test
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Rank Order Scaling
• Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to
order or rank them according to some criterion.
• It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute
sense.
• Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.
• Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.
Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling

Instructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of

preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like
most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most
preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this
procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in
order of preference. The least preferred brand should be
assigned a rank of 10.
No two brands should receive the same rank number.
The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no
right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.
Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling

Form
Brand Rank Order
1. Crest _________
2. Colgate _________
3. Aim _________
4. Gleem _________
5. Macleans _________

6. Ultra Brite _________

7. Close Up _________
8. Pepsodent _________
9. Plus White _________
10. Stripe _________
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Constant Sum Scaling
• Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes
of a product to reflect their importance.
• If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points.
• If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as
many points.
• The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale.
Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
• Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for this reason
noncomparative scales are often referred to as monadic scales.
• Noncomparative techniques consist of continuous and itemized rating scales.
Continuous Rating Scale
Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position
on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
 
How would you rate Sears as a department store?
Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
 
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
 
Version 3
Very bad Neither good Very good
nor bad
Probably the worst - - - - - - -I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Itemized Rating Scales
• The respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief
description associated with each category.
• The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and the respondents are
required to select the specified category that best describes the object being
rated.
• The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert, semantic differential,
and Stapel scales.
Likert The
Scale
Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects.
 
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
disagree agree nor agree
disagree
 
1. Sears sells high quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5
 
2. Sears has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 5
 
3. I like to shop at Sears. 1 2 3X 4 5
 
• The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile analysis), or a
total (summated) score can be calculated.

• When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the negative statements
by the respondents should be scored by reversing the scale.
Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end
points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
 
SEARS IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned

• The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of the scale and
sometimes at the right.
• This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with very positive or very
negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand sides without reading the labels.
• Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either a -3 to +3 or a 1 to 7
scale.
A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self- Concepts, Person Concepts, and
Product Concepts
1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate
2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm
3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable
4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive
5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent
6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete
8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized

9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional

10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature
11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal
12) Orthodox :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal
13) Complex :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple
14) Colorless :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful
15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain
Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten categories
numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale
is usually presented vertically.
 
SEARS
 
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the

same way as semantic differential data.
Basic Noncomparative Scales
Table 9.1
Scale Basic Examples Advantages Disadvantages
Characteristics
Continuous Place a mark on a Reaction to Easy to construct Scoring can be
Rating continuous line TV cumbersome
Scale commercials unless
computerized
Itemized Rating
Scales

Likert Scale Degrees of Measurement Easy to construct, More

agreement on a 1 of attitudes administer, and time -consuming
(strongly disagree) understand
to 5 (strongly agree)
scale

Semantic Seven -point scale Brand, Versatile Controversy as

Differential with bipolar labels product, and to whether the
company data are interval
images

Stapel Unipolar ten - point Measurement Easy to construct, Confusing and

Scale scale, -5 to +5, of attitudes administer over difficult to apply
witho ut a neutral and images telephone
point (zero)
Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions
Table 9.2
1) Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number,
traditional guidelines suggest that there
should be between five and nine categories

2) Balanced vs. unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to

obtain objective data

3) Odd/even no. of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is

possible from at least some of the respondents,
an odd number of categories should be used

4) Forced vs. non-forced In situations where the respondents are

expected to have no opinion, the accuracy of
the data may be improved by a non-forced scale

5) Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or

many scale categories. The category
descriptions should be located as close to the
response categories as possible

6) Physical form A number of options should be tried and the

best selected
BalancedFigure
and9.1Unbalanced Scales

Jovan Musk for Men is Jovan Musk for Men is

Extremely good Extremely good
Very good Very good Good
Good
Bad Somewhat good
Very bad Bad Extremely
bad Very bad
 Rating Scale Configurations Figure 9.2

A variety of scale configurations may be employed to measure the

gentleness of Cheer detergent. Some examples include:
Cheer detergent is:
1) Very harsh --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Very gentle

2) Very harsh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Very gentle

3) . Very harsh
.
.
. Neither harsh nor gentle Cheer
.
.
. Very gentle
4) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____
Very Harsh Somewhat Neither harsh Somewhat Gentle Very
harsh Harsh nor gentle gentle gentle

5)
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
Very Neither harsh Very
harsh nor gentle gentle
Some UniqueFigure
Rating
9.3 Scale Configurations
Thermometer Scale
Instructions: Please indicate how much you like McDonald’s hamburgers by coloring in
the thermometer. Start at the bottom and color up to the temperature level that best
indicates how strong your preference is.
Form:
Like very 100
much 75
50
25
Dislike 0
very much
Smiling Face Scale
Instructions: Please point to the face that shows how much you like the Barbie Doll. If
you do not like the Barbie Doll at all, you would point to Face 1. If you liked it very much,
you would point to Face 5.
Form:

1 2 3 4 5
 Figure 9.4
Development of a Multi-item Scale
Develop Theory

Generate Initial Pool of Items: Theory, Secondary Data, and

Qualitative Research

Select a Reduced Set of Items Based on Qualitative Judgement

Collect Data from a Large Pretest Sample

Statistical Analysis

Develop Purified Scale

Collect More Data from a Different Sample

Evaluate Scale Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability

Final Scale
Scale Evaluation
Figure 9.5
Scale
Evaluation

Reliability Validity Generalizability

Test/ Alternative Internal

Content Criterion Construct
Retest Forms Consistency

Convergent Discriminant Nomological

Potential Sources of9.6
Figure Error on Measurement
1) Other relatively stable characteristics of the individual that influence the test score, such as
intelligence, social desirability, and education.
2) Short-term or transient personal factors, such as health, emotions,
and fatigue.
3) Situational factors, such as the presence of other people, noise, and distractions.
4) Sampling of items included in the scale: addition, deletion, or changes in the scale items.
5) Lack of clarity of the scale, including the instructions or the items themselves.
6) Mechanical factors, such as poor printing, overcrowding items in the questionnaire, and poor
design.
7) Administration of the scale, such as differences among interviewers.
8) Analysis factors, such as differences in scoring and statistical analysis.
Reliability
• Reliability can be defined as the extent to which measures are free from
random error, XR. If XR = 0, the measure is perfectly reliable.
• In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered identical sets of scale
items at two different times and the degree of similarity between the two
measurements is determined.
• In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of the scale are
constructed and the same respondents are measured at two different times,
with a different form being used each time.
Reliability
• Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to which different parts
of a summated scale are consistent in what they indicate about the
characteristic being measured.
• In split-half reliability, the items on the scale are divided into two halves and
the resulting half scores are correlated.
• The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the average of all possible
split-half coefficients resulting from different ways of splitting the scale items.
This coefficient varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally
indicates unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability.
Validity
• The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to which differences in
observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the
characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random error.
Perfect validity requires that there be no measurement error (XO = XT, XR = 0,
XS = 0).
• Content validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the
content of a scale represents the measurement task at hand.
• Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as expected in relation to
other variables selected (criterion variables) as meaningful criteria.
Validity
• Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or
characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. Construct validity
includes convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity.
• Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates
positively with other measures of the same construct.
• Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does
not correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to
differ.
• Nomological validity is the extent to which the scale correlates
in theoretically predicted ways with measures of different but
related constructs.
Relationship Between Reliability and Validity
• If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable. In this case X O = XT,
XR = 0, and XS = 0.
• If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly valid, since at a minimum X O =
XT + XR. Furthermore, systematic error may also be present, i.e., XS≠0. Thus,
unreliability implies invalidity.
• If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not be perfectly valid, because
systematic error may still be present (XO = XT + XS).
• Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for validity.
Observation Methods
Structured versus Unstructured Observation
 
• For structured observation, the researcher specifies in detail
what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be
recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the observer monitors all aspects of

the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g.,
observing children playing with new toys.
Observation Methods
Disguised versus Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the respondents are unaware that they

are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-
way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical
devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the respondents are aware that they

are under observation.
Observation Methods
Natural versus Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing behavior as it takes

places in the environment. For example, one could observe the
behavior of respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents' behavior is observed in an

artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.
A Classification of Observation Methods
Fig. 6.3

Classifying
Observation
Methods

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Audit Content Trace

Observation Observation Analysis Analysis
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs.
• The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed
but merely records what takes place.
• For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows
in a department store.
Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
• the AC Nielsen audimeter
• turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building.
• On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
• Optical scanners in supermarkets

Do require respondent involvement.

• eye-tracking monitors
• pupilometers
• psychogalvanometers
• voice pitch analyzers
• devices measuring response latency
Observation Methods
Audit
• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or
performing inventory analysis.
• Data are collected personally by the researcher.
• The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects.
• Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research
suppliers were discussed in the context of syndicated data in
Chapter 4
Observation Methods
Content Analysis
• The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the
manifest content of a communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or
objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length
or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message).
• Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and
the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.
Observation Methods
Trace Analysis
Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past
behavior.

• The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate was used to
determine the relative popularity of exhibits.
• The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to gauge the readership of various
advertisements in a magazine.
• The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service was used to estimate share of
listening audience of various radio stations.
• The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to assess the affluence of customers.
• The magazines people donated to charity were used to determine people's favorite
magazines.
• Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to examine browsing and usage behavior
by using cookies.
Relative Advantages of Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of
intended or preferred behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the
interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short
duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than
survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is
known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
• Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
• Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult
to observe certain forms of behavior.
• In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in
observing people without their knowledge or consent.

It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than

as being in competition with them.
Methods of Data Collection: Interviewing for Research
CHAPTER TEN
Questionnaire & Form Design
Questionnaire Definition
• A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from
respondents.
Questionnaire Objectives
• It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that
the respondents can and will answer.
• A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to
become involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview.
• A questionnaire should minimize response error.
Questionnaire Design Process
Fig. 10.1
Specify the Information Needed

Specify the Type of Interviewing Method

Determine the Content of Individual Questions

Design the Question to Overcome the Respondent’s Inability and Unwillingness

to Answer

Decide the Question Structure

Determine the Question Wording

Arrange the Questions in Proper Order

Identify the Form and Layout

Reproduce the Questionnaire

Eliminate Bugs by Pre-testing

 Effect of Interviewing Method on
Questionnaire Design

Department Store Project

Mail Questionnaire
• Please rank order the following department stores in order of your preference to shop at these stores.
Begin by picking out the one store that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second
most preferred department store and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have
ranked all the stores in order of preference. The least preferred store should be assigned a rank of 10.
No two stores should receive the same rank number.
Store Rank Order
 
1. Lord & Taylor ____________
2. Macy's ____________
.
.
10. Wal-Mart ____________
Effect of Interviewing Method on
Questionnaire Design
Telephone Questionnaire
• I will read to you the names of some department stores. Please rate them in
terms of your preference to shop at these stores. Use a ten point scale, where 1
denotes not so preferred and 10 denotes greatly preferred. Numbers between 1
and 10 reflect intermediate degrees of preference. Again, please remember that
the higher the number, the greater the degree of preference. Now, please tell me
your preference to shop at .......(READ ONE STORE AT A TIME)
 
Store Not So Greatly
Preferred Preferred
1.Lord & Taylor 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.Macy’s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
.
.
.
10. Wal-Mart 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Effect of Interviewing Method on
Questionnaire Design
Personal Questionnaire
• (HAND DEPARTMENT STORE CARDS TO THE RESPONDENT). Here is a set of department store
names, each written on a separate card. Please examine these cards carefully. (GIVE RESPONDENT
TIME). Now, please examine these cards again and pull out that card which has the name of the store
you like the most, i.e., your most preferred store for shopping. (RECORD THE STORE NAME AND
KEEP THIS CARD WITH YOU). Now, please examine the remaining nine cards. Of these remaining
nine stores, what is your most preferred store for shopping? (REPEAT THIS PROCEDURE
SEQUENTIALLY UNTIL THE RESPONDENT HAS ONLY ONE CARD LEFT)
 
Store Rank Name of the Store
1. 1 __________________
2. 2 __________________
.
.
.
10. 10 __________________
Effect of Interviewing Method on
Questionnaire Design
Electronic Questionnaire
• This question for e-mail and Internet questionnaires will be very similar to that
for the mail questionnaire.
• In all these methods, the questionnaire is self-administered by the respondent.
Individual Question Content
Is the Question Necessary?

• If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that
question should be eliminated.
Individual Question Content
Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One?
• Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required information in
an unambiguous manner. Consider the question,

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft

drink?” (Incorrect)

• Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two or more

questions are combined into one. To obtain the required information, two
distinct questions should be asked:  

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and

“Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?” (Correct)
Choosing Question Structure
Unstructured Questions

• Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer

in their own words.

Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
__________________________________
Choosing Question Structure
Structured Questions
• Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the
response format. A structured question may be multiple-choice, dichotomous,
or a scale.
Choosing Question Structure
Multiple-Choice Questions
• In multiple-choice questions, the researcher provides a choice of answers and
respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives given.

Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
____ Definitely will not buy
____ Probably will not buy
____ Undecided
____ Probably will buy
____ Definitely will buy
____ Other (please specify)
Choosing Question Structure
Dichotomous Questions

• A dichotomous question has only two response alternatives: yes or no,

agree or disagree, and so on.
• Often, the two alternatives of interest are supplemented by a neutral
alternative, such as “no opinion,” “don't know,” “both,” or “none.”

Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
Choosing Question Structure
Scales
• Scales were discussed in detail in Chapters 8 and 9:

Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?

Definitely Probably Undecided Probably Definitely

will not buy will not buy will buy will buy
1 2 3 4 5
Choosing Question Wording
Define the Issue
• Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where, why, and way (the six
Ws). Who, what, when, and where are particularly important.

Which brand of shampoo do you use? (Incorrect)

Which brand or brands of shampoo have you

personally used at home during the last month?
In case of more than one brand, please
list all the brands that apply. (Correct)
Choosing Question Wording
The W's Defining the Question

Who The Respondent

It is not clear whether this question
relates to the individual respondent
or the respondent's total
household.
What The Brand of Shampoo
It is unclear how the respondent is
to answer this question if more
than one brand is used.

When Unclear
The time frame is not specified in
this question. The respondent
could interpret it as meaning the
shampoo used this morning, this
week, or over the past year.
Where At home, at the gym, on the road?
Choosing Question Wording
Use Ordinary Words
 
“Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate?” (Incorrect)

“Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them?”
(Correct)
Choosing Question Wording
Use Unambiguous Words
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Never
_____ Occasionally
_____ Sometimes
_____ Often
_____ Regularly (Incorrect)

In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?

_____ Less than once
_____ 1 or 2 times
_____ 3 or 4 times
_____ More than 4 times (Correct)
Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
• A leading question is one that clues the respondent to what the answer should be, as in the
following:
 
Do you think that patriotic Americans should buy imported automobiles when that would put
American labor out of work?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know (Incorrect)

  Do you think that Americans should buy imported automobiles?

_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know (Correct)
Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Implicit Alternatives
• An alternative that is not explicitly expressed in the options is an implicit
alternative.
 
1. Do you like to fly when traveling short distances? (Incorrect)

2. Do you like to fly when traveling short distances, or would you rather drive?
(Correct)
Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Implicit Assumptions
• Questions should not be worded so that the answer is dependent upon implicit
assumptions about what will happen as a consequence.
 
1. Are you in favor of a balanced budget? (Incorrect)

2. Are you in favor of a balanced budget if it would result in an increase in

the personal income tax? (Correct)
Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Generalizations and Estimates
 
“What is the annual per capita expenditure on groceries in your household?”
(Incorrect)
 
“What is the monthly (or weekly) expenditure on groceries in your household?”

and

“How many members are there in your household?” (Correct)

Choosing Question Wording
Dual Statements: Positive and Negative
• Questions that are in the form of statements should be worded both positively
and negatively.
Determining the Order of Questions
Opening Questions
• The opening questions should be interesting, simple, and non-threatening.
 
Type of Information
• As a general guideline, basic information should be obtained first, followed by
classification, and, finally, identification information.
 
Difficult Questions
• Difficult questions or questions which are sensitive, embarrassing, complex, or
dull, should be placed late in the sequence.
Flow Chart for Questionnaire Design
Introduction

Ownership of Store, Bank,

and Other Charge Cards

Purchased Products in a Specific Department

Store during the Last Two Months

Yes No

How was Payment made? Ever Purchased in a

Department Store?

Credit Cash
Yes
Other

No
Store Bank Other
Charge Charge Charge
Card Card Card

Intentions to Use Store, Bank,

and other Charge Cards
Form and Layout
• Divide a questionnaire into several parts.
• The questions in each part should be numbered, particularly when branching
questions are used.
• The questionnaires should preferably be precoded.
• The questionnaires themselves should be numbered serially.
Pretesting
Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of
respondents to identify and eliminate potential problems.

• A questionnaire should not be used in the field survey without adequate

pretesting.
• All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested, including question content,
wording, sequence, form and layout, question difficulty, and instructions.
• The respondents for the pretest and for the actual survey should be drawn
from the same population.
• Pretests are best done by personal interviews, even if the actual survey is to
be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means, because interviewers
can observe respondents' reactions and attitudes.
Pretesting
• After the necessary changes have been made, another pretest could be
conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means if those methods are to be
used in the actual survey.
• A variety of interviewers should be used for pretests.
• The pretest sample size varies from 15 to 30 respondents for each wave.
• Protocol analysis and debriefing are two commonly used procedures in
pretesting.
• Finally, the responses obtained from the pretest should be coded and
analyzed.
Techniques of Data Analysis