INSTRUMENTATION &

CONTROLS
It is the technology of using instruments to measure
and control manufacturing, conversions or treating
processes to create the desired physical, electrical
and chemical properties of material s.
MEASUREMENT

MONITORING

CONTROL
 MEASUREMENT
MAJOR PROCESS VARIABLES

 FLOW
 PRESSURE
 TEMPERATURE
 LEVEL
 FLOW MEASUREMENT

 DP TYPE
 ROTAMETER
 MAGNETIC
 VORTEX
 ULTRASONIC
 MASS FLOW
INTRODUCTION
Measuring fluid flow is one of the most important aspects of process control. In
fact, it may well be the most frequently measured process variable. This section
describes the nature of flow and factors affecting it. Devices commonly used to
measure flow are presented, as is a discussion on accuracy and how it is
typically specified. For quick reference, a table listing the primary
characteristics of flow metering devices is included along with a conversion
chart for the various measurement units encountered in dealing with flow.Flow
is generally measured inferentially by measuring velocity through a known
area. With this indirect method, the flow measured is the volume flow rate, Qv,
stated in its simplest terms:
Qv = A * V
In this equation, A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe and V is the fluid
velocity.A reliable flow indication is dependent upon the correct measurement
of A and V. If, for example, air bubbles are present in the fluid, the area term
.A. of the equation would be artificially high. Likewise, if the velocity is
measured as a point velocity at the center of the pipe, and it is used as the
velocity term .V. of the equation, a greater Qv than actual would be calculated
because V must reflect the average velocity of the flow as it passes a cross-
section of the pipe.
MEASUREMENT OF FLUID FLOW IN PIPES

Of the many devices available for measuring fluid flow, the

type of device used often depends on the nature of the fluid
and the process conditions under which it is measured. Flow
is usually measured indirectly by first measuring a differential
pressure or a fluid velocity. This measurement is then related
to the volume rate electronically.
Flowmeters can be grouped into four generic types: positive
displacement meters, head meters, velocity meters, and
mass meters.
Positive Displacement Meters
Positive displacement meters measure the volume flow
rate (QV) directly by repeatedly trapping a sample of the
fluid. The total volume of liquid passing through the
meter in a given period of time is the product of the
volume of the sample and the number of samples.
Positive displacement meters frequently totalize flow
directly on an integral counter, but they can also
generate a pulse output which may be read on a local
display counter or by transmission to a control room.
Because each pulse represents a discrete volume of
fluid, they are ideally suited for automatic batching and
accounting. Positive displacement meters can be less
accurate than other meters because of leakage past the
internal sealing surfaces. Three common types of
displacement meters are the piston, oval gear, and
nutating disc.
Head Meters
Head meters are the most common types of meter used to measure fluid flow
rates. They measure fluid flow indirectly by creating and measuring a
differential pressure by means of an obstruction to the fluid flow. Using well-
established conversion coefficients which depend on the type of head meter
used and the diameter of the pipe, a measurement of the differential pressure
may be translated into a volume rate.

Head meters are generally simple, reliable, and offer more flexibility than other
flow measurement methods. The head-type flowmeter almost always consists
of two components: the primary device and the secondary device. The primary
device is placed in the pipe to restrict the flow and develop a differential
pressure. The secondary device measures the differential pressure and
provides a readout or signal for transmission to a control system. With head
meters, calibration of a primary measuring device is not required in the field.
The primary device can be selected for compatibility with the specific fluid or
application and the secondary device can be selected for the type or readout of
signal transmission desired.
 Venturi Tubes
Venturi tubes exhibit a very low pressure loss compared to
other differential pressure head meters, but they are also the
largest and most costly. They operate by gradually narrowing
the diameter of the pipe, and measuring the resultant drop in
pressure. An expanding section of the meter then returns the
flow to very near its original pressure
. As with the orifice plate, the
differential pressure measurement is
converted into a corresponding flow
rate. Venturi tube applications are
generally restricted to those requiring a
low pressure drop and a high accuracy
reading. They are widely used in large
diameter pipes such as those found in
waste treatment plants because their
gradually sloping shape will allow solids
to flow through.
 Flow Nozzle
Flow nozzles may be thought
of as a variation on the venturi
tube. The nozzle opening is an
elliptical restriction in the flow
but with no outlet area for
pressure recovery (Figure 4).
Pressure taps are located
approximately 1/2 pipe
diameter downstream and 1
pipe diameter upstream.

The flow nozzle is a high velocity flow meter used where

turbulence is high (Reynolds numbers above 50,000) such as in
steam flow at high temperatures. The pressure drop of a flow
nozzle falls between that of the venturi tube and the orifice plate
(30 to 95 percent).
 Pitot Tubes
In general, a pitot tube for indicating
flow consists of two hollow tubes that
sense the pressure at different places
within the pipe. These tubes can be
mounted separately in the pipe or
installed together in one casing as a
single device. One tube measures the
stagnation or impact pressure
(velocity head plus potential head) at
a point in the flow.

The other tube measures only the static pressure (potential

head), usually at the wall of the pipe. The differential
pressure sensed through the pitot tube is proportional to
the square of the velocity.
Pitot tubes are primarily used to
measure gases because the change
in the flow velocity from average to
center is not as substantial as in other
fluids. Pitot tubes have found limited
applications in industrial markets
because they can easily become
plugged with foreign material in the
fluid. Their accuracy is dependent on
the velocity profile.
To install a pitot tube, you must determine the location of maximum
velocity with pipe traverses. Although a pitot tube may be calibrated
to measure fluid flow to ±1/2 percent, changing velocity profiles
may cause significant errors. Annubar is also called averaging pitot
tube
 Rotameters

Rotameters (also known as variable-

area flow meters) are typically made
from a tapered glass tube that is
positioned vertically in the fluid flow. A
float that is the same size as the base
of the glass tube rides upward in
relation to the amount of flow. Because
the tube is larger in diameter at the top
of the glass than at the bottom, the float
resides at the point where the
differential pressure between the upper
and lower surfaces balance the weight
of the float. In most rotameter
applications, the flow rate is read
directly from a scale inscribed on the
glass; in some cases, an automatic
sensing device is used to the float and
transmit a flow signal.
These transmitting rotameters are
often made from stainless steel or
other materials for various fluid
applications and higher pressures.
Rota meters may range in size from
1/4 inch to greater then 6 inches.
 Velocity Meters

When using velocity to measure a fluid flow rate, the primary

device generates a signal proportional to fluid velocity. The
equation QV = A * V illustrates that the generated signal is linear
with respect to the volume flow rate. Velocity meters are usually
less sensitive than head meters to velocity profile, some are
obstruction less, and because they provide linear output with
respect to flow, there is no square-root relationship as with
differential pressure meters. This eliminates the potential
inaccuracies associated with square-root extraction and explains
the greater rangeability of velocity meters in comparison to most
head meters.
 Orifice Plates
A concentric orifice plate is the simplest and least expensive of the
head meters (Figure 2). Acting as a primary device, the orifice
plate constricts the flow of a fluid to produce a differential pressure
across the plate.
The result is a high pressure
upstream and a low pressure
downstream that is propo-
rtional to the square of the flow
velocity. An orifice plate usually
produces a greater overall
pressure loss than other
primary devices. A practical
advantage of this device is that
cost does not increase
significantly with pipe size.
 PRESSURE 68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area

Afeet=300cm2

0.23 kgf/cm2 0.46 kgf/cm2

P=68/300=0.23 kgf/cm2

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.

Some basic
pressure
gages.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
MANOMETERS
MECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS
BOURDON ELEMENT
BELLOW ELEMENTS
DIAPHRAGM ELEMENTS
ELECTRONIC TRANSDUCER
STRAIN GAUGES
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
VARIABLE CAPACITANCE
 PRESSUER FUNDAMENTAL
PRESSURE IS A FORCE APPLIED TO OR DISTRIBUTED OVER A
SURFACE.THE PRESSURE ( P ) OF A FORCE ( F ) OVER AN AREA ( A ) IS
DEFINED AS-
P=F/A
IN INSTRUMENTATION WORK , PRESSURE IS NORMALLY
EXPERRESED IN POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH OR POUNDS PER SQUARE
FOOT.HOWEVER WHEN IT COMES TO LOW PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT ,THE PRESSUER MAY BE EXPRESSED IN TERMS OF
HEIGHT OF COLUMN OF LIQUID REQUIRED TO ESTABLISH A
CONDITION OF PRESSURE EQUILIBRIUM.
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
 Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
 Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

20
 2.5 Measurement of Pressure

Unit : Pa ( scal ) , i.e., N / m 2 in general kPa is used

Absolute( 絶 對 ), Gage(=Gauge, 計 器 ), and Vacuum( 眞 空 )

Pressure (see Fig. )
2 Ways of Pressure Measurement
1) absolute pressure with respect to a zero pressure
2) gage pressure with respect to local atmospheric pressure
Relationship
absolute pressure =
atmospheric pressure(=zero gage pressure) + gage pressure
or + vacuum pressure(or suction pressure = - gage pressure)
1. Manometer :
a pressure measuring device instruments that use columns of
liquids to measure pressure

2. 3 common types of manometers

1) piezometer tube
2) U-tube manometer
3) inclined-tube manometer
 A.The Manometer Manometers measure a pressure difference
by balancing the weight of a fluid column between the two pressures
of interest.

P1  P2  Patm  gh

Pgage  gh
 A manometer is a device used to
measure pressures other than
atmospheric pressure.
– Used to measure pressures of gas
samples
– Types
 Open
 Closed
Comparison of Open and Closed Manometers
MANOMETER ARE OFTEN USED FOR PROCESS PRESSURE
APPLICATION EXCEPT OCCASIONALLY FOR LOW PRESSURE
SERVICES WHERE MEASUREMENT ARE IN LOW PRESSURE
RANGE.
PRINCIPLE OF MANOMETER IS GIVEN AS

P= HEIGHT * DENSITY

WHERE “P”IN PER SQ.FOOT/INCH

“HEIGHT” IN FEET/ INCH
“ DENSITY” IN POUND`S/CUBIC FOOT/INCH
TYPES-
U-TUBE MANOMETER
WELL MANOMETER
INCLINED MANOMETER
 2.6.1 Piezometer

1. pressure at A
p A   1h1  po  p1 : (abs )
or p A   1h1  p1 : ( gage) p  po  patm
2. Advantage and Disadvantages
1] advantage ; very simple and accurate
pressure measuring device
2] disadvantages
- It is only suitable if the pressure in the
container is greater than atmospheric
pressure, otherwise air would be sucked into
the system.
p A  p1
- Pressure to be measured must be
relatively small so the required height of the
column is reasonable.
- The fluid in the container in which the
pressure is to be measured must be a liquid
rather than a gas.
 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer

1. Simple U-tube Manometer (see p55 Fig.2.10)

1] p A  patm   2 h2   1h1 : (abs )   2 h2   1h1 : ( gage)  p1 (2.14)

2] major advantage
A major advantage of the U-tube p1  p A , p3  p2
manometer lies in the fact that the
gage fluid(=fluid in the manometer)
can be different from the fluid in the
container in which the pressure is to
be determined.
 2. Example 2.4 : p gage  ?

 air  oil ,  Hg

SG oil  0.9

SG Hg  13.6
3. Differential U-tube manometer (see p56 Fig. 2.11)
1] usage ; widely used to measure the difference in pressure between

two containers or two points in a given system.

2]ppressure difference
B  p A   1h1   2 h2   3 h3  p5

 p A  pB   2 h2   3h3   1h1

p A  p1, p2  p3, p5  pB
 Inclined-Tube Manometer

1] usage object ; to measure small pressure change

Thus, for relatively small angles the differential reading along the
inclined tube can be made large even for small pressure
differences.
2] pB  p A   1h1   2l2 sin    3h3
 p A  pB   2l2 sin    3 h3   1h1 (2.15)

 1
p1  p1
 Example 1: U-tube
manometer using multiple
fluid column

Pressure in a continuous static fluid is the same at any horizontal level so,

For the left hand arm

For the right hand arm

ADVANTAGES
 HIGH ACCURACY & SENSITIVITY
 WIDE RANGE OF FILLING

DISADVANTAGES
 NO OVERRANGE PROTECTION
 LARGE & BULKY
 MEASURED FLUIDS MUST BE COMPATIBLE WITH
THE MANOMETER FLUIDS
 NEED OF LEVELING
 DWT
 A deadweight tester (DWT) is a calibration standard
which uses a piston cylinder on which a load is
placed to make an equilibrium with an applied
pressure underneath the piston. Deadweight testers
are so called primary standards which means that
the pressure measured by a deadweight tester is
defined through other quantities; length, mass and
time. Typically deadweight testers are used in
calibration laboratories to calibrate pressure transfer
standards like electronic pressure measuring devices.