Radar systems

G.Srilatha
Asst.Professor

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Basics of Radar Outline
CW and Frequency Modulated Radar
MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar
Tracking Radar
Detection of Radar Signals in Noise
Radar Receivers

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Books
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Introduction to Radar Systems – Merrill I. Skolnik, TMH
Special Indian Edition, 2nd Ed., 2007.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Introduction to Radar Systems, 3rd edition – M.I. Skolnik,
TMH Ed., 2005
2. Radar: Principles, Technology, Applications – Byron Edde,
Pearson Education, 2004.
3. Radar Principles – Peebles, Jr., P.Z., Wiley, New York, 1998.
4. Principles of Modern Radar: Basic Principles – Mark A.
Richards, James A. Scheer, William A. Holm, Yesdee,
5. Radar Engineering – GSN Raju, IK International.

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 History of RADAR
RADAR was invented by Heinrich Hertz in
1880-85
First patent for using RADAR as a ship
detector Huelsmeyer in 1904
Concept of side looking airborne RADAR came
in 1940
Civilian applications started since 1960s
Imaging RADAR satellites started in 1970s
Since in 1990s the airborne SAR research
started
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RADAR Radar system
 It is an acronym for
 RAdio Detection And Ranging
 Operates in the microwave region of the
EMR(1mm to 1m)

 An active sensor 7
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Controlling the Air Traffic

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 Basic
Radar is used Principle
for detecting of Radar
the objects and finding
their location.

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 Terminology of Radar Systems

Following are the basic terms

 Range
 Pulse Repetition Frequency
 Maximum Unambiguous Range
 Minimum Range

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 Range
• The distance between Radar and target is called Range of the
target.
T = time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to
target and back to Radar.
2R = two way distance between the Radar and target
C = Speed of the light = 3×108m/s
Speed = Distance / Time
⇒Distance=Speed ×Time
⇒ 2R=C×T
R= CT /2 ⇒ (1)
We can find the range of the target by substituting the values
of C & T in Equation

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 Pulse Repetition Frequency
The time interval between the successive clock pulses is called pulse
repetition time, TP

The reciprocal of pulse repetition time is called pulse repetition frequency, fp.

Mathematically, it can be represented

fP=1/TP ⇒ (2)

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 Maximum Unambiguous Range

• True range of the target is also called maximum unambiguous range of the target.
• Substitute, R=Run and T=Tp in Equation 1.
Run=CTp / 2 ⇒(3)
From Equation 2, we will get the pulse repetition time, Tp as the reciprocal of pulse repetition
frequency, fp.
 Mathematically, it can be represented as Tp=1/fp ⇒(4)
Substitute, Equation 4 in Equation 3.
Run=C(1/fp)/2
Run=C/2fp ⇒(5)

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 Minimum Range

• Time required for the echo signal to receive at

Radar after the signal being transmitted from the
Radar is considered as pulse width.
• It is also called the shortest range of the target.
• Substitute, R=Rmin and T=τ in Equation 1.
Rmin = Cτ/2 ⇒ (6)
• We will get the value of minimum range of the
target, Rmin by substituting the values
of C and τ in Equation 6.

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Radar Range Equation

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 Radar performance factors
• The factors, which affect the performance of Radar are known as
Radar performance factors.
• standard form of Radar range equation is used for calculating the
maximum range of Radar for given specifications.
Rmax = [PtGσAe / (4π)2Smin]1/4
• Where,
• Pt is the peak power transmitted by the Radar
• G is the gain of transmitting Antenna
• σ is the Radar cross section of the target
• Ae is the effective aperture of the receiving Antenna
• Smin is the power of minimum detectable signal

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• In order to get the maximum range of the Radar
 following conditions should be considered.
• Peak power transmitted by the Radar Pt should be high.
R max α Pt
• Gain of the transmitting Antenna G should be high.
• Radar cross section of the target σ should be high.
• Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna Ae should be
high.
• Power of minimum detectable signal Smin should be low.
• parameters like Radar cross section of the target, σσ and
minimum detectable signal, Smin are statistical in nature.

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 Minimum Detectable Signal

• If the echo signal has minimum power, detecting that

signal by the Radar is known as minimum detectable
signal
• We have to select proper threshold value based on the
strength of the signal to be detected.
• A high threshold value should be chosen when the
strength of the signal to be detected is high so that it
will eliminate the unwanted noise signal present in it.
• Similarly, a low threshold value should be chosen when
the strength of the signal to be detected is low.
• The following figure illustrates this concept −
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 Receiver Noise
• If the receiver generates a noise component into the
signal, which is received at the receiver, then that kind
of noise is known as receiver noise
• thermal noise power(Ni): It occurs due to thermal
motion of conduction electrons.
Ni=KToBn
• Where,
K is the Boltzmann's constant = 1.38×10−23J/deg
To is the absolute temperature = 2900K
Bn is the receiver band width

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• Radar cross section of the target 𝜎 should be
high.
• Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna 𝐴𝑒
should be high.
• Figure of Merit F should be low.
• Receiver bandwidth 𝐵𝑛 should be low.

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 Integration of Pulse
• The process of summing all the radar pulses to
improve detection is known as “Pulse integration”

• Depending on location of the pulse integrator in the

signal processing chain this process is referred to as

– coherent integration.
– non-coherent integration.

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• Integration: the process of summing all radar echoes
available from the target

• Coherent Integration:
– Insertion of a Pulse integrator between the matched filter and
amplitude detector.
– Integration before the second detector is called Pre detection
integration/Coherent integration
Non-Coherent Integration :
– Integrator is placed after the amplitude or square law detector.
– Integration after the second detector is called post or Non-
Coherent Integration

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 Coherent Integration Differences
Non-Coherent Integration

Predetection Integration Postdetection Integration

Phase information of the echo Detector destroys phase

signal is preserved information. Less efficient than
predetection.

If n pulse are integrated, the SNR If n pulse are integrated, the SNR
of integrated signal is nSNR. of integrated signal is lesser than
nSNR.

Difficult to implement Easy to implement

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 Integration efficiency
• The integration efficiency may be defined as
Ei(n) – Integration efficiency,
SNR(1) – Single pulse SNR required to produce a specific Pd if there is
no integration,
SNR(n) – Single pulse SNR required to produce a specific Pd if n
pulses are integrated perfectly.
• The improvement in SNR if n pulses are integrated, (post
detection) is nEi(n)
• Ii(n) = nEi(n) is called as Integration improvement factor, or
the equivalent number of pulses integrated (neq).
• In Predetection, (neq) = n
• In postdetection (neq) < n.

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 Radar Cross Section of Targets
• Radar cross section is the area intercepting the amount
of power and scatters in all direction.
• A formal definition is,

• RCS depends on the target shape, dimensions, materials,

polarization etc.,
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RCS of Sphere – simple target

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• Rayleigh Region : The wavelength () is large
compared to the object’s dimensions.
–  is proportional to f4.
–  is determined by the volume than its shape.
– E.g: Echo from rain
• Optical region: The wavelength () is small compared
to the object’s dimensions.
–  is affected by shape than projected area.
– E.g: Scattering from Aircraft
• Resonance region:  is comparable with object’s
dimension.
–  is larger in resonance region than the other two regions.

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 Creeping Wave
• A creeping wave in electromagnetism is the wave that
is diffracted around the shadowed surface of a smooth
body such as a sphere
• Creeping wave is a traveling wave that doesn’t face
surface discontinuous and not reflected by obstacle &
it is able to travel around the object and come back at
the radar.
• Unlike normal traveling wave, creeping wave
traveled along surface shadowed from incidence wave
(because it has to go around the object).
• As a result, the amplitude of creeping wave will
reduce the further it has to travel because it can’t feed
energy from the incident wave in the shadow region. 
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 Types of Radars
• Radars can be classified into the following two
types based on the type of signal with which
Radar can be operated.
Pulse Radar
 Continuous Wave Radar

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Un modulated Continuous Wave Radar
• The Radar, which operates with continuous
signal (wave) for detecting non-stationary
targets is called Un modulated Continuous
Wave Radar or simply, CW Radar.
• It is also called CW Doppler Radar.

• It measures only the speed of the target but

not the distance of the target from the Radar.

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 Limitations of simple CW Radar
• Lack of isolation between Tx and Rx.
• Receiver burn out
• Introduction of flicker noise (1/f noise) due to
homodyne
• Lack of matched filter in the receiver 
• Increased clutter compared to pulsed radar
• Measurement of range is not possible

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Isolation between Transmitter and
Receiver
• Isolation between transmitter and receiver in CW
radars is an important aspect where a single antenna
serves the purpose of both transmission and
reception.

• Isolation required depends on Tx power, Tx noise

and sensitivity of the receiver.

• Large distance CW radar introduce more Tx noise

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 Methods to provide isolation
1. Doppler Effect
2. Duplexer
3. hybrid junction,
4. circulator,
5. turnstile junction,
6. separate polarizations.
7. Separate antennas for transmitting and receiving
might also be used.

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 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar

• If CW Doppler Radar uses the Frequency Modulation,

then that Radar is called the Frequency Modulated
Continuous Wave (FMCW) Radar or FMCW Doppler
Radar.
• It is also called Continuous Wave Frequency
Modulated Radar or CWFM Radar.
• It also requires two Antennas for both transmitting &
receiving purpose.

• It measures not only the speed of the target but also

the distance of the target from the Radar

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Range and Doppler measurement:

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Figure: Frequency-time relation-ships in FM-CW radar. Solid curve represents
transmitted signal; dashed curve represents echo. (a) Linear frequency
modulation (b) triangular frequency modulation(c) beat note of (b).
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• In the frequency-modulated CW radar (FM-CW), the
transmitter frequency is changed as a function of time in a
known manner.

• transmitter frequency increases linearly with time, as

shown by the solid line in the figure.

• Dotted line indicates Echo signal from the target

• It uses triangular frequency modulation.

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 Derivation for Range & Velocity
• If there is a reflecting object at a distance R, the echo signal
will return after a time T = 2R/c.
• Difference between Transmitted signal Freq and received
echo signal frequency is called beat frequency(fb) which
gives doppler and range information.
• If the target is stationary both beat frequency(fb) and range
frequency (fr) both are equval
•

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 contd
• For triangular modulation f0(dot) = 2fm.Δf
• Subsitute in above equvation it becomes
fr = (2R/c).2fm.Δf = 4Rfm.Δf /c Or
R = c fr / 4fm.Δf..............................[Eq.1]

So the measurement of the beat frequency

determines the range R.

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 Pulse Radar
• The Radar, which operates with pulse signal
for detecting stationary targets is called Basic
Pulse Radar or simply, Pulse Radar.

• Pulse Radar uses single Antenna for both

transmitting and receiving of signals with the
help of Duplexer.

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 What do you observed when you through a
pebble into a body of water? (apart from the
pebble sinking) 2

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APPLICATIONS OF DOPPLER EFFECT
1) To find out velocity of moving object
2) Discovery of spin of the sun
3) Discovery of binary stars.
4) To find out whether a star is moving towards
the earth or moving away from the earth.
5) Discovery of receding of galaxies from each
other.

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 What is Doppler effect?

 Doppler effect is the change in frequency of a wave

for an observer moving relative to its source.
 the observer observes an upward shift in frequency
when the wave source is approaching,
 And a downward shift in frequency when the wave
source is retreating

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 Doppler effect applies to all waves including

 Sound waves,
 Light waves
 Water waves

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 Doppler Effect in Radar Systems.
• If the target is not stationary, then there will be a
change in the frequency of the signal that is
transmitted from the Radar and that is received by
the Radar
• This effect is known as the Doppler effect in Radar
systems.
two possible cases:
• The frequency of the received signal will increase,
when the target moves towards the direction of
the Radar.
• The frequency of the received signal will decrease,
when the target moves away from the Radar. 155
 Derivation of Doppler Frequency
• The distance between Radar and target is nothing
but the Range of the target denoted with a R
• the total distance between the Radar and target in
a two-way communication path will be 2R
• 𝜆 is one wave length
• number of wave lengths in a two-way
communication path between the Radar and
target (N) will be equal to 2𝑅⁄𝜆

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FM-CW altimeter

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Multiple Frequency CW Radar

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• CW radar can not measure range, it is possible by measuring the
phase of the echo signal relative to the phase of the transmitted
signal.
• Consider a CW radar radiating a single-frequency sine wave of the
form sin2πfot
• signal travels to the target at a range R and returns to the radar after
a time T = 2R/c
• If the transmitted and received signals are compared in a phase
detector, the output is proportional to the phase difference between
the two signals.
• The principal used in multiple freq. CW radar is the measurement of
range by computing the phase difference.A measurement of range R
of stationary target by employing continuous wave radar transmitting
sine waves (2πft).The time taken by the sine wave is t=2R/c

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• 4. The o/p given by the phase detector, which will compare
the transmitted signal on the received signal is written as,
Δφ = 2πft
Δφ = 2πf (2R/c)
= 4πfR/c R
= cΔφ / 4πf R
= λ Δφ / 4π
• Block diagram of multiple freq. CW radar is almost as CW
radar except it has got one more channel and measuring
device. The better accuracy in range measurement may be
provided by the large freq. diff. between the two
transmitted signals. Transmitting three or four freq.

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• The transmitted waveform is assumed to consist of two
continuous sine waves of frequency f1 and f2 separated
by an amount Δf.
• The voltage waveforms of the two components of the
transmitted signal v1r and v2r, may be written as
v1r = sin (2πf1 t + φ1)
v2r = sin (2πf2 t + φ2)
Where φ1 and φ2 are arbitrary (constant) phase angles.
8. The echo signal is shifted in frequency by the doppler
effect. The form of the Doppler-shifted signals
corresponding to the two frequencies f1 and f2 are:

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MTI and Pulse Doppler Radar

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• If the Radar is used for detecting the movable target,such
Radars are called MTI Radar.

• The echo signals due to stationary objects (places) such as

land and sea are called clutters.

• To distinguish echo's of non-stationary targets from

stationary objects MTI Radar uses the principle of Doppler
Effect.

• According to Doppler effect, the frequency of the received

signal will increase if the target is moving towards the
direction of Radar otherwise it will decrease.
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 Types of MTI Radars

• based on the type of transmitter  used MTI Radars

Are classified into two types
MTI Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter
MTI Radar with Power Oscillator Transmitter

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 MTI Radar with Power Amplifier
Transmitter
• MTI Radar uses single Antenna for both
transmission and reception of signals with the
help of Duplexer.

• The block diagram of MTI Radar with power

amplifier transmitter is shown in the following
figure.

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MTI Radar with Power Oscillator
Transmitter

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• The output of Magnetron Oscillator and the output of
Local Oscillator are applied to Mixer-I. This will further
produce an IF signal, the phase of which is directly
related to the phase of the transmitted signal.
• The output of Mixer-I is applied to the Coherent
Oscillator. Therefore, the phase of Coherent Oscillator
output will be locked to the phase of IF signal. This
means, the phase of Coherent Oscillator output will
also directly relate to the phase of the transmitted
signal.
• So, the output of Coherent Oscillator can be used as
reference signal for comparing the received echo signal
with the corresponding transmitted signal using phase
detector.
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• Tactical Endurance Synthetic Aperture Radar
• Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar
System

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 “BUTTERFLY” EFFECT IN MTI RADAR
1. Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by
observing the video output on an A-scope (amplitude vs. range).
A single sweep on an A-scope might appear as in Fig. (a).
2. This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving targets
indicated by the two arrows. On the basis of a single sweep,
moving targets cannot be distinguished from fixed targets.
3. Successive A scope sweeps (pulse-repetition intervals) are shown
in Fig. (b) to(e). Echoes from fixed targets remain constant
throughout but echoes from moving targets vary in amplitude
from sweep to sweep at a rate corresponding to the doppler
frequency.
4. The superposition of the successive A-scope sweeps is shown in
Fig. (J). The moving targets produce, with time, a butterfly effect
on the A-scope.
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 Delay Line Cancellers
• Delay line canceller is a filter, which eliminates the
DC components of echo signals received from
stationary targets.

 
• it allows the AC components of echo signals received
from non-stationary targets, i.e., moving targets.

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• Two types of delay line cancellers

1. Time domain filter / cancellers.

2. Freq. domain filter / cancellers

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The combination of a delay line and a subtractor is known as Delay
line canceller. It is also called single Delay line canceller. The block
diagram of MTI receiver with single Delay line canceller is shown in
the figure below.

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 Double Delay Line Canceller
• If two such delay line cancellers are cascaded
together, then that combination is called Double
delay line canceller.

• The frequency response of a single-delay-line

canceller does not always have as broad a clutter
rejection null as desired in the vicinity of d-c. The
clutter-rejection notches may be widened by passing
the output of the delay-line canceller through a
second delay-line canceller
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 Multiple or staggered Pulse
Repetition Frequencies
• The use of more than one pulse repetition frequency
offers additional flexibility in the design of MTI
Doppler filters.
• It reduces the effect of the blind speeds & provides
sharper low-frequency cutoff in the frequency
response than with a cascade of single-delay line
cancellers
• The blind speeds of two independent radars
operating at the same frequency will be different if
their pulse repetition frequencies are different.
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• if one radar were “blind "to moving targets, it is unlikely
that the other radar would be” blind" also.
• instead of using two separate radars, the same result
can be obtained with one radar which time-shares its
pulse repetition frequency between two or more
different values (multiple PRF’s).
• The pulse repetition frequency might be switched every
scan or every time the antenna is scanned a half beam
width.
• When the switching is pulse to pulse, it is known as a
staggered PRF

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• An example of the composite (average) response of
an MTI radar operating with two separate pulse
repetition frequencies on a time-shared basis is
shown in aboveFig
• The pulse repetition frequencies are in the ratio of
5:4. Note that the first blind speed of the composite
response is increased several times over what it
would be for a radar operating on only a single pulse
repetition frequency.
• Zero response occurs only when the blind speeds of
each prf coincide. In this example the blind speeds
are coincident for 4/T1= 5/T2.

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 Applications of MTI radars

• Space-borne applications
• Unmanned aerial vehicles
• Some applications relative to ground MTI are
locating, tracking, classifying, and identifying
moving vehicles.
• Maritime moving target indicators (MMTIs)

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 RANGE GATED DOPPLER FILTERS
• In order to separate moving targets from stationary
clutter, the delay line canceller has been widely used
in MTI radar.

• Quantizing the time in to small interval can eliminate

the loss of range information and collapsing loss. This
process is known as the range gating.

• After quantizing the radar return interval, the output

from each gate is applied to narrow band filter.
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• A block diagram of the video of an MTI radar using
multiple range gates followed by clutter rejection filter is
shown in Fig
• Here the range gates sample the output of the phase
detector sequentially range interval.
• The output of the range gate is given to a circuit known
as box car generator. It acts as sample & hold circuit to
hold output of range gates.
• The clutter rejection filter is nothing but a band pass
filter which rejects the clutter echos and allows echos
from moving targets.
• the filtered output from the Doppler filter is further fed
to a full wave linear detector which convert the bipolar
video to unipolar.
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• A low pass filter or integrator passes these unipolar video
to the threshold detection circuit. Any signal crosses the
threshold level is treated as a target.
• The outputs from each range channels are combined for
display on the PPI or any other display unit.

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• The presentation of this type of MTI radar is far
better than the display from normal MTI radar.
not only because of better clutter rejection, but
also because the threshold device eliminates
many of the unwanted false alarms due to noise

• It must be pointed out that the MTI radar using

range gates and filters is more complex than an
MTI with single delay line canceller.

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 Limitations to MTI Performance
• The improvement in signal-to-clutter ratio of an MTI
is affected by factors other than the design of the
Doppler signal processor such as

 Instabilities of the transmitter and receiver

 physical motions of the clutter
 Finite time on target (or scanning modulation)

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 Definitions related to MTI
Performance
• MTI improvement factor: The signal-to-clutter
ratio at the output of the MTI system divided by the
signal-to-clutter ratio at the input.
• Sub clutter visibility: The ratio by which the target
echo power may be weaker than the coincident
clutter echo power and still be detected with
specified detection and false alarm probabilities.A
sub clutter visibility of, for example, 30 dB implies
that a moving target can be detected in the presence
of clutter even though the clutter echo power is 1000
times the target echo power
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• Clutter visibility factor: The signal-to-clutter ratio,
after cancellation or Doppler filtering that provides
probabilities of detection and false alarm.

• The improvement factor (I) Is equal to the sub

clutter visibility (SCV) times the clutter visibility
factor (VOC). In decibels, I(dB) = SCV(dB) + Voc(dB).
When the MTI is limited by noise like system
instabilities, the clutter visibility factor should be
chosen as is the signal to noise ratio as defined in
Radar Equation.

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 Limitations
• Equipment instabilities: Pulse-to-pulse changes in the
amplitude, frequency, or phase of the transmitter signal,
changes in the Stalo or Coho oscillators in the receiver,
jitter in the timing of the pulse transmission, variations in
the time delay through the delay lines, and changes in the
pulse width can cause the apparent frequency spectrum
from perfectly stationary clutter to broaden and thereby
lower the improvement factor of an MTI radar. The stability
of the equipment in MTI radar limit the performance of
MTI radar if sufficient care is not taken in design,
construction, and maintenance.

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• Internal fluctuation of clutter: Although clutter
targets such as buildings, water towers, bare hills
or mountains produce echo signals that are
constant in both phase and amplitude as a
function of time, there are many types of clutter
that cannot be considered as absolutely stationary.
Echoes from trees,sea, rain, and chaff fluctuate
with time, and these fluctuations can limit the
performance of MTI radar. Because of its varied
nature, it is difficult to describe precisely the
clutter echo signal.
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• Antenna scanning modulation: As the antenna scans
by a target, it observes the target for a finite time equal
to : to=nB/fP = θB / θ’S where nB = number of hits
received, fp = pulse repetition frequency, θB = antenna
beam width and θ’S = antenna scanning rate. The
received pulse train of finite duration (to) has a
frequency spectrum whose width is proportional to 1/to.
Therefore, even if the clutter were perfectly stationary,
there will still be a finite width to the clutter spectrum
because of the finite time on target. If the clutter
spectrum is too wide because the observation time is too
short, it will affect the improvement factor. This
limitation has sometimes been called scanning
fluctuations or scanning modulation.
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 Pulse Doppler Radar Vs MTI
• A Pulse radar that extracts the Doppler frequency
shift for the purpose of detecting moving targets in
the presence of clutter is either a MTI Radar or a
Pulse Doppler Radar.
• The distinction between them is based on the fact
that in a sampled measurement system.
• pulse Radar, ambiguities arise in measuring both the
Doppler frequency and the Range & Range
ambiguities are avoided with a low sampling rate
(low pulse repetition frequency), and Doppler
frequency ambiguities are avoided with a high
sampling rate. 230
• MTI usually refers to a Radar in which the pulse
repetition frequency is chosen low enough to avoid
ambiguities in range (no multiple-time-around echoes)
but with the consequence that the frequency
measurement is ambiguous and results in blind speeds,
The pulse Doppler radar, on the other hand, has a high
pulse repetition frequency that avoids blind speeds, but
it experiences ambiguities in range.

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 UNIT-4
TRACKING RADAR

 Trackingwith Radar
 Sequential Lobing
 Conical Scan
 Monopulse Tracking Radar
 Amplitude Comparison Monopulse
(One and two coordinate)
 Phase Comparison Monopulse
 Tracking in Range
 Acquisition and Scanning Patterns
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 Tracking Radar
• The Radar, which is used to track the path of one or
more targets is known as Tracking Radar. In general, it
performs the following functions before it starts the
tracking activity.

• Tracking is the process of continuously maintaining the

antenna beam on the target and also the echo signal
within the range gate.

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• it performs the following functions in the tracking
activity
 Target detection
 Range of the target
 Finding elevation and azimuth angles
 Finding Doppler frequency shift

So, Tracking Radar tracks the target by tracking

one of the three parameters — range, angle,
Doppler frequency shift

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Block diagram of Tracking Radar

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• The radar which detects target and determines location
as well as predict its trajectory path is known as tracking
radar.
• The axis of Radar Antenna is considered as the reference
direction.
• If the direction of the target and reference direction is
not same, then there will be angular error, which is
nothing but the difference between the two directions.
• If the angular error signal is applied to a servo control
system, then it will move the axis of the Radar Antenna
towards the direction of target.
• Both the axis of Radar Antenna and the direction of
target will coincide when the angular error is zero.
• There exists a feedback mechanism in the Tracking 248
• Following are the two techniques, which are used
in angular tracking.
• Sequential Lobing
• Conical Scanning

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 Sequential Lobing
• If the Antenna beams are switched between two patterns
alternately for tracking the target, then it is called
sequential lobing.

• It is also called sequential switching and lobe switching.

• This technique is used to find the angular error in one

coordinate. It gives the details of both magnitude and
direction of angular error
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• As shown in the figure 1(a), Antenna beams
switch between Position 1 and Position 2
alternately.
• It is a polar representation of the antenna beam
in the two switched positions
• Angular error θ is indicated in the above figure.
• A plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in
Fig.1-b, and the error signal obtained from a
target not on the switching axis (reference
direction) is shown in Fig.1- c.

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• The difference in amplitude between the voltages
obtained in the two switched positions is a
measure of the angular displacement of the target
from the switching axis.

• The sign of the difference determines the direction

the antenna must be moved in order to align the
switching axis with the direction of the target.

• When the voltages in the two switched positions

are equal, the target is on axis and its position is
determined from the antenna direction.
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• An important feature of sequential lobing
compared with the other tracking techniques is
that the target-position accuracy is far better.
Limitations
 Angle of beam is far greater than the angle of
error
 If we use pencil beam tracking reagion will
decrease
 It only identifies the dierection not position

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 Applications
• It is used in ground based Radar tracking
systems

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 Conical Scanning
• If the Antenna beam continuously rotates for tracking a
target, then it is called conical scanning. Conical scan
modulation is used to find the position of the target.
Following figure shows an example of conical scanning.

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Squint angle is the angle between beam axis and rotation
axis and it is shown in the above figure. The echo signal
obtained from the target gets modulated at a frequency
equal to the frequency at which the Antenna beam
rotates.
The angle between the direction of the target and the
rotation axis determines the amplitude of the
modulated signal. So, the conical scan modulation has
to be extracted from the echo signal and then it is to be
applied to servo control system, which moves the
Antenna beam axis towards the direction of the target.

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