SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
CHAPTER 2
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The definition of research
Research is an organized, systematic,
data-based, critical, objective, scientific
inquiry into a specific problem that
needs a solution.
Managerial decisions based on the
results of scientific research tend to be
effective.
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What is Meant by a Scientific
?Research
Scientific research focuses on solving problems
and pursues a step-by-step, logical, organized, and
rigorous method to identify the problems, gather
data, analyze them, and draw valid conclusions
therefrom.
Thus, scientific research is not based on:
hunches,
experience, and
intuition (though these may play a part in final decision making), but a purposive and rigorous.
Objective, not Subjective
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Why not they prefer scientific
?research
Lack of time
Unwillingness to utilize resources
Lack of knowledge
Inability to perform
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The Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
The Hallmarks or main distinguishing
characteristics of scientific research may be listed
as follows:
1. Purposiveness 5. Precision
2. Rigor 6. Objectivity
3. Testability 7. Generalizability
4. Replicability 8. Parsimony
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The Hallmarks of Scientific
Research
We will explain each of these
characteristics in the context of the
following example:
Consider the case of a manager who is
interested in investigating how
employees’ commitment to the
organization can be increased.
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Purposiveness .1
The manager has started the research with a
definite aim or purpose.
The focus is on increasing the commitment of
employees to the organization.
Benefits which will result:
less turnover,
less absenteeism,
increased performance levels,
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Rigor .2
Rigor means carefulness, and the
degree of exactitude in research
investigations.
A good theoretical base and a sound
methodological design would add
rigor to a purposive study.
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In the case of our example of increasing
:the commitment of employees
Let us say that the manager of an organization asks
10 of its employees to indicate what would
increase their level of commitment to the
organization.
If the manager depends solely on the basis of their
responses reaches to several conclusions on how
employee commitment can be increased, the whole
approach to the investigation would be
unscientific.
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An approach to an investigation would
:lack rigor for the following reasons
1. Incorrect conclusions because they are based on the responses of
just a few employees (lacks of methodological sophistication).
2. The manner of framing and addressing the questions could have
introduced bias in the responses (lacks of methodological
sophistication).
3. There might be many other important influences on organizational
commitment that this small sample did not verbalize during the
interviews, and the researcher would have failed to include them
(lacks of a good theoretical framework).
So
Conclusions drawn from an investigation that lacks a good theoretical
framework and methodological sophistications would be unscientific.
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Testability .3
Scientific research tends itself to testing logically
developed hypotheses to see whether or not the
data support the hypotheses that are developed.
After taking random selection of employees of the
organization, and the study of previous research
done in the area of organizational commitment, the
researcher develops certain hypotheses on how
employee commitment can be enhanced. Then these
hypotheses can be tested by applying certain
statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose.
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Replicability .4
The results of the tests of hypotheses
should be supported again and
again when the same type of research
is repeated in other similar
circumstances.
If the results are repeated, we will gain
confidence in the scientific nature of our
research.
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Precision and Confidence .5
Precision refers to the closeness of the
findings to reality based on a sample.
The degree of accuracy of the results
on the basis of the sample, to what
really exists in the universe.
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Precision and Confidence
In business research, “definitive” conclusions
on the basis of the results of data analysis cant
be made because:
1. We have to base our findings on a sample that we
draw from the universe. The sample may not reflect
the exact characteristics of the phenomenon we try
to study.
2. Measurement errors and other problems are bound
to introduce an error in our findings.
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Precision and Confidence
We would like to design the research in
a manner that ensures that our
findings are as close to reality as
possible, so that we can place
reliance or confidence in the
results.
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Precision and Confidence
Confidence refers to the probability that our
estimations are correct.
It is not enough to be precise, but it is also important that we
can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would
be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.
This is also known as confidence level.
The greater the precision and confidence we aim at in
our research, the more scientific is the investigation
and the more useful are the results.
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objectivity .6
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation
of the results of data analysis should be
objective.
The conclusions should be based on the facts
of the findings derived from actual data, and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.
The more objective the interpretation of the data,
the more scientific the research investigation
becomes.
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Generalizability .7
Generalizability refers to the scope of
applicability of the research findings in
one organizational setting to other
settings.
The wider the range of applicability
of the solutions generated by research,
the more useful the research is to the
users.
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Parsimony .8
Parsimony refers to simplicity in explaining
the phenomena or problems that occur, and
in generating solutions for the problems.
Economy in research models is achieved when
we can build into our research framework a
lesser number of variables that would
explain the variance far more efficiently than
a complex set of variables that would only
marginally add to the variance explained.
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Parsimony
Parsimony can be introduced with a
good understanding of the problem and
the important factors that influence it.
A good conceptual theoretical
model can be realized through
interviews with the concerned people,
and a thorough literature review of
the previous research work in the
particular problem area.
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Deduction and Induction
Deductive reasoning: application of a
general theory to a specific case.
Hypothesis testing (Top Down)
Inductive reasoning: a process where
we observe specific phenomena and on
this basis arrive at general conclusions.
Counting white swans (Bottom up)
Both inductive and deductive processes
are often used in research.
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The hypothetico-Deductive
Method
Theseven steps involved in the hypothetico-
deductive method of research stem from the
building blocks discussed above and listed below:
1. Identify a broad problem area
2. Define the problem statement
3. Develop hypotheses
4. Determine measures
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis
7. Interpretation of data
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Identify a broad problem area
If the manager notice a drop in sales,
incorrect accounting results, low-yielding
investment, disinterestedness of
employees in their work, and the like,
could attract the attention of the manager
to do a research project.
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Define the problem statement
• Scientific research starts with a
definite aim or purpose.
• A problem statement states the
general objective of the research.
• Can be developed through extensive
literature review.
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Develop hypotheses
The network of associations between the
problem and the variables that affect it is
identified.
A scientific hypothesis must meet two
requirements:
1. The hypothesis must be testable
2. The hypothesis must be falsifiable (we can
only prove our hypotheses until they are
disproved).
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Determine measures
The variables in the theoretical framework
should be measurable in some way.
Some variables can not be measured
quantitatively, such as unresponsive
employees, we need to operationalize this
variable.
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Data collection
Data with respect to each variable in
the hypothesis need to be obtained.
Data can be Primary or Secondary
There are two types of data:
- Quantitative data
- Qualitative data
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Data Analysis
In this step, the data gathered are
statistically analyzed to see if the
hypotheses that were generated have
been supported.
Analyses of both quantitative and
qualitative data can be done to
determine if certain relations are
important.
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Data Analysis
Qualitative data refer to information
gathered through interviews and
observations. These data usually for objects
than can not be physically measured, like
feelings and attitudes.
Quantitative data refer to information
gathered about objects that can be physically
measured. The researcher could obtain these
data through the company records,
government statistics, or any formal records.
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Interpretation of data
Now we must decide whether our
hypotheses are supported or not by
interpreting the meaning of the results
or the data analysis.
Based on these results, the researcher
would make recommendations in
order to solve the problem in hand.
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Other Types of Research
Case studies, and
Action research
Are sometimes used to study certain
types of issues.
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Case Studies
Case studies involve in-depth analyses of
similar situations in other organizations,
where the nature and definition of the problem is
the same as experienced in the current situation.
If a particular hypothesis has not been supported
even in a single other case study, the researcher
could ignore that hypothesis.
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Case Studies
Case studies are not often undertaken in
organizations because:
1. It is very seldom to find similar problems happened
in an organizations of the same size and same type
of setting.
2. Many companies prefer to guard their problems and
their data.
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Action Research
Action research is sometimes undertaken by
consultants who want to initiate change
processes in organizations.
Action research methodology is most
appropriate while effecting planned changes.
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Action Research
The researcher begins with a problem that is already
identified, and gathers relevant data to provide a
tentative problem solution.
This solution is then implemented, with the
knowledge that there may be unintended
consequences following such implementation.
The effects are then evaluated, defined, and
diagnosed, and the research continues on an ongoing
basis until the problem is fully resolved.
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Types of Business Research
Business research can be classified by Technique or
Purpose
By Technique
Experiment,
survey,
Observational Study
By Purpose
Exploratory Research
Descriptive Research
Causal Research
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By Purpose
Exploratory Research
Conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover ideas that may be
potential business opportunities.
NOT intended to provide conclusive evidence.
Used to guide and refine future research (i.e. hiking shoes, new product issue)
Descriptive Research
Describes characteristics of objects, people, groups, organizations, or
environments; tries to “paint a picture” of a given situation
Helps to describe market segments
Accuracy is critically important
diagnostic analysis
seeks to diagnose reasons for business outcomes and focuses specifically on the beliefs and
feelings respondents have about and toward specific issues.
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Types of Business Research
(cont.)
Causal Research
Allows causal inferences to be made; seeks to identify cause and effect
relationships.
causal inference
DEGREE OF CAUSALITY
Absolute Causality
Means the cause is necessary and sufficient to bring about the effect
Conditional causality
Means that a cause is necessary but not sufficient to bring about
an effect.
Contributory Causality
Means that a cause need be neither necessary nor sufficient to bring about an effect.
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