Analysis of Algorithms

Input Algorithm Output

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for

solving a problem in a finite amount of time.
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia
 Running Time (§3.1)
Most algorithms transform best case

input objects into output average case

worst case
objects. 120

The running time of an 100

algorithm typically grows

Running Time
80
with the input size.
60
Average case time is often
difficult to determine. 40

We focus on the worst case 20

running time. 0
1000 2000 3000 4000
 Easier to analyze Input Size
 Crucial to applications such as
games, finance and robotics

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 2

 Experimental Studies
Write a program 9000

implementing the 8000

algorithm 7000

Run the program with 6000

Time (ms)
inputs of varying size and 5000
composition 4000
Use a method like 3000
System.currentTimeMillis() to 2000
get an accurate measure
1000
of the actual running time
0
Plot the results 0 50 100
Input Size

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 3

 Limitations of Experiments
It is necessary to implement the
algorithm, which may be difficult
Results may not be indicative of the
running time on other inputs not included
in the experiment.
In order to compare two algorithms, the
same hardware and software
environments must be used

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 4

 Theoretical Analysis
Uses a high-level description of the
algorithm instead of an implementation
Characterizes running time as a function
of the input size, n.
Takes into account all possible inputs
Allows us to evaluate the speed of an
algorithm independent of the
hardware/software environment
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 5
 Pseudocode (§3.2)
High-level description Example: find max
of an algorithm element of an array
More structured than Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
English prose Input array A of n integers
Less detailed than a Output maximum element of A
program
Preferred notation for currentMax  A[0]
describing algorithms for i  1 to n  1 do
Hides program design if A[i]  currentMax then
issues currentMax  A[i]
return currentMax

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 6

 Pseudocode Details
Control flow Method call
 if … then … [else …] var.method (arg [, arg…])
 while … do … Return value
 repeat … until … return expression
 for … do … Expressions
 Indentation replaces braces  Assignment
(like  in Java)
Method declaration  Equality testing
Algorithm method (arg [, arg…]) (like  in Java)
Input … n2 Superscripts and other
Output … mathematical
formatting allowed

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 7

 The Random Access Machine
(RAM) Model
A CPU

An potentially unbounded
bank of memory cells, 2
1
each of which can hold an 0
arbitrary number or
character
Memory cells are numbered and accessing
any cell in memory takes unit time.
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 8
 Seven Important Functions (§3.3)
Seven functions that
often appear in 1E+30
algorithm analysis: 1E+28
1E+26
Cubic
 Constant  1 1E+24 Quadratic
 Logarithmic  log n 1E+22
Linear
 Linear  n 1E+20
1E+18
 N-Log-N  n log n
T (n )
1E+16
 Quadratic  n2 1E+14
 Cubic  n3 1E+12
1E+10
 Exponential  2n 1E+8
1E+6
In a log-log chart, the 1E+4
slope of the line 1E+2
1E+0
corresponds to the 1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10
growth rate of the n
function
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 9
 Primitive Operations
Basic computations
Examples:
performed by an algorithm  Evaluating an
Identifiable in pseudocode expression
Largely independent from the  Assigning a value
to a variable
programming language  Indexing into an
Exact definition not important array
(we will see why later)  Calling a method
Assumed to take a constant  Returning from a
method
amount of time in the RAM
model

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 10

 Counting Primitive
Operations (§3.4)
By inspecting the pseudocode, we can determine the
maximum number of primitive operations executed by an
algorithm, as a function of the input size

Algorithm arrayMax(A, n)
currentMax  A[0] 2
for i  1 to n  1 do 2n
if A[i]  currentMax then 2(n  1)
currentMax  A[i] 2(n  1)
{ increment counter i } 2(n  1)
return currentMax 1
Total 8n  2

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 11

 Estimating Running Time
Algorithm arrayMax executes 8n  2 primitive
operations in the worst case. Define:
a = Time taken by the fastest primitive operation
b = Time taken by the slowest primitive operation
Let T(n) be worst-case time of arrayMax. Then
a (8n  2)  T(n)  b(8n  2)
Hence, the running time T(n) is bounded by two
linear functions

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 12

 Growth Rate of Running Time
Changing the hardware/ software
environment
 Affects T(n) by a constant factor, but
 Does not alter the growth rate of T(n)
The linear growth rate of the running
time T(n) is an intrinsic property of
algorithm arrayMax

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 13

 Constant Factors
1E+26
The growth rate is 1E+24 Quadratic
Quadratic
not affected by 1E+22
1E+20 Linear
 constant factors or 1E+18 Linear
 lower-order terms 1E+16
1E+14
Examples T (n ) 1E+12
1E+10
 102n  105 is a linear 1E+8
function 1E+6
 105n2  108n is a 1E+4
quadratic function 1E+2
1E+0
1E+0 1E+2 1E+4 1E+6 1E+8 1E+10
n

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 14

 Big-Oh Notation (§3.4)
10,000
Given functions f(n) and 3n
g(n), we say that f(n) is 2n+10
1,000
O(g(n)) if there are
n
positive constants
c and n0 such that 100

f(n)  cg(n) for n  n0

10
Example: 2n  10 is O(n)
 2n  10  cn
1
 (c  2) n 10 1 10 100 1,000
 n 10(c  2) n
 Pick c 3 and n0 10

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 15

 Big-Oh Example
1,000,000
n^2
Example: the function 100n
100,000
n2 is not O(n) 10n
 n2  cn 10,000 n
 nc
 The above inequality 1,000
cannot be satisfied
since c must be a 100
constant
10

1
1 10 100 1,000
n

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 16

More Big-Oh Examples
 7n-2
7n-2 is O(n)
need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 7n-2  c•n for n  n0
this is true for c = 7 and n0 = 1
 3n3 + 20n2 + 5
3n3 + 20n2 + 5 is O(n3)
need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 3n3 + 20n2 + 5  c•n3 for n  n0
this is true for c = 4 and n0 = 21
 3 log n + 5
3 log n + 5 is O(log n)
need c > 0 and n0  1 such that 3 log n + 5  c•log n for n  n0
this is true for c = 8 and n0 = 2
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 17
 Big-Oh and Growth Rate
The big-Oh notation gives an upper bound on the
growth rate of a function
The statement “f(n) is O(g(n))” means that the growth
rate of f(n) is no more than the growth rate of g(n)
We can use the big-Oh notation to rank functions
according to their growth rate

f(n) is O(g(n)) g(n) is O(f(n))

g(n) grows more Yes No
f(n) grows more No Yes
Same growth Yes Yes
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 18
 Big-Oh Rules

If is f(n) a polynomial of degree d, then f(n) is

O(nd), i.e.,
1. Drop lower-order terms
2. Drop constant factors
Use the smallest possible class of functions
 Say “2n is O(n)” instead of “2n is O(n2)”
Use the simplest expression of the class
 Say “3n  5 is O(n)” instead of “3n  5 is O(3n)”

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 19

 Asymptotic Algorithm Analysis
The asymptotic analysis of an algorithm determines
the running time in big-Oh notation
To perform the asymptotic analysis
 We find the worst-case number of primitive operations
executed as a function of the input size
 We express this function with big-Oh notation
Example:
 We determine that algorithm arrayMax executes at most
8n  2 primitive operations
 We say that algorithm arrayMax “runs in O(n) time”
Since constant factors and lower-order terms are
eventually dropped anyhow, we can disregard them
when counting primitive operations

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 20

 Computing Prefix Averages
We further illustrate 35
asymptotic analysis with X
two algorithms for prefix 30 A
averages 25
The i-th prefix average of 20
an array X is average of the
first (i  1) elements of X: 15
A[i] X[0]  X[1]  …  X[i])/(i+1) 10
5
Computing the array A of
0
prefix averages of another
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
array X has applications to
financial analysis
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 21
 Prefix Averages (Quadratic)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in
quadratic time by applying the definition
Algorithm prefixAverages1(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A  new array of n integers n
for i  0 to n  1 do n
s  X[0] n
for j  1 to i do 1 2 … (n  1)
s  s  X[j] 1 2 … (n  1)
A[i]  s  (i  1) n
return A 1
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 22
 Arithmetic Progression
7
The running time of
6
prefixAverages1 is
O(1 2 …n) 5
The sum of the first n 4
integers is n(n 1) 2 3
 There is a simple visual
proof of this fact 2
Thus, algorithm 1
prefixAverages1 runs in 0
O(n2) time
1 2 3 4 5 6

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 23

 Prefix Averages (Linear)
The following algorithm computes prefix averages in
linear time by keeping a running sum
Algorithm prefixAverages2(X, n)
Input array X of n integers
Output array A of prefix averages of X #operations
A  new array of n integers n
s0 1
for i  0 to n  1 do n
s  s  X[i] n
A[i]  s  (i  1) n
return A 1
Algorithm prefixAverages2 runs in O(n) time
© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 24
 Math you need to Review
Summations
Logarithms and Exponents
properties of logarithms:
logb(xy) = logbx + logby
logb (x/y) = logbx - logby
logbxa = alogbx
logba = logxa/logxb
properties of exponentials:
a(b+c) = aba c
Proof techniques abc = (ab)c
ab /ac = a(b-c)
Basic probability b = a logab
bc = a c*logab

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 25

 Relatives of Big-Oh
big-Omega
 f(n) is (g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0

and an integer constant n0  1 such that

f(n)  c•g(n) for n  n0

big-Theta
 f(n) is (g(n)) if there are constants c’ > 0 and c’’

> 0 and an integer constant n0  1 such that

c’•g(n)  f(n)  c’’•g(n) for n  n0

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 26

 Intuition for Asymptotic
Notation
Big-Oh
 f(n) is O(g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically

less than or equal to g(n)

big-Omega
 f(n) is (g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically

greater than or equal to g(n)

big-Theta
 f(n) is (g(n)) if f(n) is asymptotically

equal to g(n)

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 27

 Example Uses of the
Relatives of Big-Oh
 5n2 is (n2)
f(n) is (g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0  1
such that f(n)  c•g(n) for n  n0
let c = 5 and n0 = 1
 5n2 is (n)
f(n) is (g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and an integer constant n0  1
such that f(n)  c•g(n) for n  n0
let c = 1 and n0 = 1
 5n2 is (n2)
f(n) is (g(n)) if it is (n2) and O(n2). We have already seen the former,
for the latter recall that f(n) is O(g(n)) if there is a constant c > 0 and
an integer constant n0  1 such that f(n) < c•g(n) for n  n0
Let c = 5 and n0 = 1

© 2004 Goodrich, Tamassia Analysis of Algorithms 28